Electrical Clearances ror Transmission-
of good behavior, switching overvoltages
Line Design at the Higher Voltages
P. L. BELLASCHI
FELLOW AIEE
A GREAT deal of study has been
given by transmission engineers to
the problem of electrical clearances in
line design. Because of the complexity of
the problem and the uncertainties in-
volved, until recently the approach has
been based partly on experience, coupled
however in large measure with empiricism.
With the advent of higher trailsmission
voltages the economic urge for rationaliza-
tion in this field made itself felt to a point
that further research and studies became
inevitable. Manv have been engaged in
the work. This paper relates to part of
the over-all effort in course during the past
5 years or more and is presented as a basis
for further constructive thought and ac-
tion in this important field.
Conditions of Service
The three voltage conditions to con-
sider in determining the insulation and
electrical-clearance requirements for the
design of high-voltage transmission lines
are: 1. 60-cycle voltages; 2. switching
and similar transient overvoltages; 3.
lightning.
To secure the most economical and ef-
fective design, these conditions must be
evaluated quantitatively with reference
to the principal factors influencing opera-
tion of the line, which comprise:
1. The action of the wind in reducing
clearances, resulting from the swinging of
the conductors together and against the
tower structure.
2. Reduced clearances to ground and inter-
ference of foreign or adjacent objects,
requiring proper measures in addition to
adequate clearances (right-of-way clearing,
etc.).
3. Upswing of conductors due to vertical
wind and convection effects, galloping and
Paper 54-203, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee and approved
by the AIEE Committee on Technical Operations
for presentation at the AIEE Summer and Pacific
General Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif., June 21-25,
1954. Manuscript submitted March 1, 1954; made
available for printing April 5, 1954.
P. L. BELLASCHI is a consulting engineer, Portland,
Oreg.
In the preparation of this paper the author has
drawn in good measure from his background and
association as consultant to the Bonneville Power
Administration on high-voltage transmission de-
velopments, and he gratefully acknowledges the
use of various illustrative material presented.
1192 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
arrangements and with circuit breakers
dancing of conductors resulting from un-
loading of sleet and snow, and similar
factors present in certain geographical
regions and under certain topographical
conditions, which affect spacing between
conductors, especially at midspan.
4. Application of suitable shields when
required, to grade stresses and suppress
corona on insulator assembly and hardware,
so designed as to secure optimum clearances
to tower structure under all significant
positions of sideswing.
a. Safety requirements, including con-
sideration of national and state electrical
codes.
6. "Hot-line" maintenance.
7. Effect of spacing of conductors on the
impedances and capacitances of the line;
likewise, effect of spacing on radio influence
and corona.
S. The application of rapid-clearing and
reclosing breakers as a factor in transmis-
sion design, conducive to the acceptance of
reduced clearances for unusual conditions
of operation such as may result from
maximum sideswing of conductors and
insulator assemblies under high wind and
other abnormal conditions.
In this paper the electrical clearance re-
quirements from insulator assembly and
line conductor to the tower will be con-
sidered in detail first, and then the other
factors listed in the foregoing will be
examined in their broader aspect in rela-
tion to the over-all problem.
Permissible Electrical Clearances at
Tower, as Determined from
Switching Overvoltages
Inasmuch as switching overvoltages are
a consideration of prime importance in
determining the electrical clearance re-
quirements at the tower structures, this is
a factor that should be examined in the
first place. System studies and experi-
ence all point to the criterion that for an
interconnected system of modern design,
operating with the neutral solidly
grounded and provided with breakers
essentially free of restrike, overvoltages
from line to ground on the energized
lines or parts of the energized system re-
sulting from switching or similar effects
seldom attain 2.5 line-to-neutral crest
'
voltage.1- (Experience on the 230-kv
system the Bonneville Power Adminis-
of
tration indicates that for normal system
exceeding 2.5 times line-to-ground volt-
age seldom occur.) On this basis the ex-
pectancy distribution curve for switching
ov7ervoltages in Table I has been con-
structed for use in determining the corre-
sponding permissible electrical clearances
required at the tower.
A second important factor in determin-
ing the clearances from insulator assembly
to tower structure is the strength of air to
switching overvoltages. Based on the
experimental data obtained in recent
years,56 the strength of air to switching
surges in relation to the impulse strength
is in the ratio of 9 to 10.
The clearances for 2.5 times line-to-
neutral switching overvoltages are derived
in Table II. Column 1 gives the rated
voltage and, in parentheses, the maximum
operating voltage nominally set at 5 per
cent more than rated voltage. The
switching overvoltages in column 2 are
based on maximum operating voltage in
column 1. Column 2 multiplied by 10/9
gives the corresponding full-wave im-
pulse voltage equivalent in column 3.
In calculating the required strength, an
allowance of 10 per cent (1.10 factor) is
made between withstand voltage and crit-
ical (50-per-cent) spark-over of air. An
additional 10 per cent (1.10 factor) is
allowed for nonstandard atmospheric
conditions and similar effects. And
finally a 15-per-cent margin (1.15 factor
of safety) is applied. Thus column 3 is
multiplied by 1.10 by 1.10 bv 1.15 to ob-
tain column 4. On this basis the elec-
trical clearances required to tower for a
given sideswing of the insulator assembly
are given in column 5. The clearances
correspond to point-to-point electrode
data and positive polarity of the volt-
age.7'8
The clearances in Table II assume that
switching overvoltages in excess of 2.5
times line-to-neutral are a rare possibility
and they refer to operating conditions
that may obtain, especially in a modern
interconnected system with no-restrike
circuit breakers and which is equipped to
limit 60-cycle dynamic overvoltages. In
the event that system conditions are not
so favorable and are conducive to higher
Table 1. Expectancy Distribution oF Switch-
ing Overvoltages For Modern High-Voltage
System
Line-to-Neutral Crest, Per-Cent
Multiple Distribution
2. 5, maximum . .......... Practically none
2.5 to 2.0........... 5
2.0 to 1.5............................ 10
Less than 1.5, >1.25 ...... 85
OCTOBE-R 1 954
 Table IL. Electrical Clearances Required to Withstand Switching Overvoltages
Switching Full Wave
Overvoltages Impulse
Voltage 2.5 X Voltage
Class, 60-Cycle Crest, Equivalent,
Kv Kv Kv
230 (242) .. 495. 550
288 (302) .620 .690.960...
345 (362) .. 740 ...... 8253.
switching overvoltages, correspondingly
greater clearances would be necessary.
Table III gives the electrical clearances
required for switching overvoltages cor-
responding to a maximum of 2.75 and 3.0
times line-to-ground voltage. These
clearances were derived in the same man-
ner and by the same procedure as the
values in Table II for 2.5 times line-to-
ground voltage.
Inasmuch as the spacing permissible
from line conductor to tower depends on
the probability of simultaneous occur-
rence of maximum switching overvoltages
and maximum sideswing of the insulator
string, the selection of effective and eco-
nomical spacings rests very largelv upon a
realistic evaluation of these two factors.
In well-balanced designs, the two factors
combined should at no time or, if at all,
only rarely encroach unduly on the
strength of the air from conductor to
tower. Therefore, an appraisal of per-
missible minimum spacings requires con-
sideration of probable maximum swing of
insulator assembly encountered on high-
voltage transmission lines. This factor
will be considered next.
Maximum Swing of Insulator
Assembly
To determine on an engineering basis
probable maximum swing angles encoun-
tered in practice, a 165-mile single-circuit
steel-tower line designed for 288 kv but
scheduled to operate initially at 230 kv
was selected as a reference for specific
study. The line chosen traverses moun-
tainous terrain as well as open country
and follows a valley for many miles, thus
covering a wide variety of topographical
and climatic conditions. The load data
for the line correspond to a wind of
8 pounds per square foot (nominal 60
miles per hour) and to 1/2-inch ice at 0
degrees Fahrenheit, which is the criterion
of design in determining maximum swing
(limited, not to exceed 45 degrees). Spot
checks were made which show that for an
8-pound wind swing angles for the con-
ductor unloaded will not exceed swing
angles corresponding to ice-loading condi-
tions.
OCTOBER 1 954 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
Design Strength Permissible
Full Wave Clearances
(1 1/2x40 Conductor
Microseconds), to Tower,
Kv Inches
.765
.... 48
61
15150 .............4...4
Thus, taking this reference case study
which is typical of others, the following ob-
servations are deduced in regard to maxi-
mum swing angles corresponding to a 60-
mile wind transverse to the line for the 758
suspension structures examined:
1. The tower structures in which swing
angles come within the limits of 40 to 45
degrees are only 4.2 per cent.
2. Structures in which the swing angle
is more than 35 degrees comprise about
8.6 per cent of the total.
3. Swing angles of more than 35 degrees
are scattered over the entire length of the
line (165 miles), with some tendency to
cluster in certain sections of the line, where
presumably prevailing topography, terrain,
and other factors in the design contribute
to the large swing angles.
4. The average swing angle for the entire
line is in the order of 30 degrees.
Probability of Simultaneous
Occurrences of Maximum
Swing and Maximum
Switching Overvoltages
The 165-mile line previously mentioned
(Fig. 1) as a case stud-, extends from
eastern Washington to western Montana.
It was estimated from this and other stud-
ies that but a small per cent of line
would be affected annuallx by- wind veloc-
ities approaching 60 miles per hour.
Furthermore, direction of wind is un-
likely to be uniformly transverse to a line
for any great length. From this, it was
deduced that only a limited number of in-
sulator strings could be subjected to swing
angles as great as 40 or 45 degrees at any
one time and then only for relatively short
periods, i.e., a matter of minutes.
It is apropos to mention here that,
based on a recent survey,9 strongest
maximum wind velocities (5 minutes) up
to 60 miles per hour are seldom reached in
the United States, except on the seacoast
and at other unusual locations. (Table
IV).
A 165-mile line such as that just de-
scribed may experience annually some 100
switching overvoltages above about 1.25
times line-to-ground crest. On the basis
of Table I, overvoltages in the order of
2.5 times line-to-ground would be limited
to a few (possibly a very few) assuming
the presence of circuit breakers of good
performance and satisfactory operating
practices. It is recognized that severe
system disturbances and abnormal
meterological conditions bear a certain
correlation to each other. However, in
view of the infrequency of occurrence and
the short times involved, the probability
of simultaneous maximum swing and
maximum switching overvoltages is very
small. On the strength of these con-
siderations, it was estimated that the fre-
quency at which a maximum swing (40 to
45 degrees) and maximum switching over-
voltages (above 2.25 line-to-ground)
might occur simultaneously, would be
hardly more than once or twice per year
for the entire 165-mile line studied.
Selection of Swing Angle in High-
Voltage Transmission Design
From the foregoing, it is apparent that
in high-voltage transmission-line design
permissible spacings can be based realis-
tically on a 35-degree swing angle. Fol-
lowing this procedure the air clearances
from conductor (clamp or grading shield)
to tower at 35-degree sideswing are pro-
portioned to maximum switching over-
voltage (Table III). In the event of a
45-degree swing and maximum switching
overvoltage occurring simultaneously,
the strength of the air would be en-
croached upon, but in view of the infre-
quency of occurrence it seems good en-
gineering to accept the risk and secure
the economic gain resulting from this pro-
cedure in design. The probable risk of
spark-over from conductor to tower at
45-degree swing angle becomes even more
acceptable and the consequences are fur-
ther attenuated through the use of fast
clearing and reclosing circuit breakers.
Since this proposal for a 35-degree
swing angle in transmission line design was
advanced (in 1950), other investigators
similarly engaged in high-voltage trans-
mission developments, both here3 and
abroad,'0"' have come essentially to the
same criterion of design based on their
Table l1l. Electrical Clearances Required for
Switching Overvoltages 2.5, 2.75, and 3.0
Times Line-to-Neutral Voltage (ELN)
Clearances for Switching
Voltage Overvottages, Inches
Class, 2.5 X 2.75 X 3.0 X
KV ELN ELN ELN
230 (242) .. 48 . 53 . 58
288 (302) .. 61 . 67 . 74
345 (362) .. 74 . 82 . 90
1193
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Fig. 1. Single-circuit steel-tower 287-kv transmission line. Initial operation at 230 kv, total length 165 miles; 16-insulator string, 5 3/4 by 10-inch units, 1.382-inch diameter steel-reinforced
aluminum cable conductor. Designed for 8-pound wind, 1/2-inch ice. Points indicate calculated swing angles at suspension towers
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of air is desired, the ratio of impulse to
switching may be increased to 100/85,
again with a view toward reducing proba-
ble risk thereby, however, further com-
pounding the over-all factor of safety in
design.
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temperature, the barometric pressure, and
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z;X;>W3<X>ov ;umux4)
44
possibly as much as 10 per cent under
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OCTO BER 19-04 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages 1195
 Table V. Comparison of Proposed Clearances and Present NESC Rules
Proposed Clearances, Table II
Voltage Class, Minimum
Kv Clearances
230 (242) ... .. 4 feet ...........35 .5 feet 1 inch.4..........54
288 (302) ..... 5 feet 1 inch ..........
345 (362) ..... 6 feet 2 inches........ 5..
significance of this condition, like all
others, again must be weighed in terms of
probabilities, i.e., the probability of simul-
taneous occurrence of maximum switch-
ing overvoltages, maximum insulator
swing, and heavy rain precipitation. In
addition to these factors, for very long
lines some consideration may need be
given also to the Ferranti effect.
Therefore, where a greater measure of
conservatism is the set aim, clearances
as much as 10 per cent higher than those
in Table III may find justification.
Higher clearances beyond this level would
hardly seem warranted.
Influence of Lightning on
Clearances to Tower
Overhead ground wires on high-voltage
transmission lines are frequently omitted
in regions where the incidence of lightning
is low, especially if ice in combination
with the overhead ground wire becomes a
contributing factor to hazard. This is the
usual practice in the Northwest. In this
case, the electrical clearances required to
tower are determined from switching over-
voltage considerations.
Because of the more severe conditions
of lightning and its effect on line perform-
ance, overhead ground-wire protection
remains the practice throughout eastern
United States and Canada. Likewise,
analysis of this application will show that
for the higher transmission voltages there
is no valid justification in proportioning
clearances to tower above the require-
ments for switching overvoltages. On the
basis of a 35-degree swing angle and
swritching overvoltages 2.5 times line-to-
ground as the criterion of design, the im-
pulse strength of the insulator string
either for a 16-unit or an 18-unit assembly
essentially is co-ordinated to the air clear-
ances from conductor to tower up to 20-
degree swing angle. These are the num-
ber of elements (53/4 spacing by 10-inch
diameter) in an insulator string that
would be required normally for transmis-
sion voltages of 288 kv and 345 kv re-
spectively. For a line design where clear-
ances are proportioned up to switching
overvoltages 2.75 times or more line-to-
1196 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
Present NESC Rules
Swing Swing
Angle, Minimum Angle,
Degrees Clearances Degrees
35 .6 feet 4 inches.......... 45
3 7 feet 7 inches .......... 45
ground, co-ordination between the insula-
tor string and the clearances to tower
would extend to swing angles well beyond
20 degrees. The probability of simul-
taneous occurrence of a severe lightning-
current discharge (in excess of 50,000 am-
peres) in a tower footing in combination
with high tower-footing resistance and of
swing angles much in excess of 20 degrees
is too rare practicallv to require greater
clearances, merelIv to improve further the
lightning performance of transmission line
in the higher voltage classes. Therefore
the practical fact is that, in view of the
high insulation levels and the inherently
superior performance to lightning of trans-
mission-line designs in the higher voltage
classes, the clearances from conductor to
tower as determined from switching-
overvoltage considerations also ade-
quately fulfill, or more than fulfill, the
lightning requirements.
Other Factors in Design
Grading shields suitably designed to
secure optimum clearances can effect
worth-while economies in tower and line
design. A total reduction of 15 per cent
in the spacing of conductors reduces the
line reactance about 3 per cent and raises
the capacitance the same amount.
Corona losses and radio influence are af-
fected but not appreciably so.
MIinimum mid-span spacings between
conductors depend on span and tower de-
sign, weather conditions, and geographi-
cal location. Experience with 230-kv
lines in similar locations provides a good
criterion for design, and there is no good
reason whv minimum clearances at mid-
span for 288 kv and 345 kv need be much
greater than for 230 kv.
In setting up design clearances at
towers, special attention must be given to
transposition towers, and also to anchor
and angle towers.
The application of fast circuit breakers
is definitely a factor conducive to im-
proved operation and to economies in de-
sign. The application of rapidly reclos-
ing breakers to remove nonpermanent
faults permits the use of reduced clear-
ances, within the limits indicated.
Likewise, hot-line maintenance imposes
a need for clearances at the higher volt-
ages which are reasonably low, so men
can handle their equipment efficiently
and with safety.
State and National Safety Codes
These studies show that the clearances
and swing angle specified in the present
rules of the National Electrical Safety
Code (NESC) are too high for applica-
tion to line design at the higher transmis-
sion voltages. The rules were developed
for low and medium voltage transmission.
Apparently they do not differentiate for
the conditions at the higher voltages in
which large conductors are used and svs-
tems invariably operate with neutral
solidly grounded. A companson is given
in Table V.
Safety is an important factor in all high-
voltage design and the question of safety
naturally should always receive foremost
attention. However, a realistic and
practical approach to this problem in the
light of present knowledge and require-
ments is paramount if cost of transmis-
sion is not to be penalized unnecessarily.
There is a pressing need therefore to re-
examine present NESC rules to ensure
their continuing to fulfill safety require-
ments without hampering or restricting
progress in the power-transmission field.
Economies Attained Applying the
Criteria of Design Proposed
An example will be considered to illus-
trate relative economies attained through
a rationalized design, i.e., for proportion-
ing clearances to actual requirements.
According to the present NESC rules,
the minimum clearance to tower required
for 288 kv is 6 feet 4 inches, corresponding
to a 45-degree swing, compared to 5 feet
1 inch and a 33-degree swing. For an in-
sulator string of 16 units, normally used
for 288 kv, a reduction in the width of
tower crossarm of about 8 feet for single-
tower design can be effected. The net
saving in weight of tower varies depend-
ing on the design, but as an estimate may
range from 5 to 10 per cent or possibly
more.
In addition, there are other benefits,
the reduced impedance of the line, for
instance. Thus, the economies attaina-
ble through rationalization constitute an
important factor in design not only in
themselves but as an essential basis for
further development and progress in the
field of power transmission at the higher
voltages.
OCTOBER 1 954
References
1. POWER SYSTEM OVERVOLTAGES PRODUCED BY
FAULTS AND SWITCHING OPERATIONS, AIEE Com-
mittee Report. AIEE Tr-antsactions, vol. 67, pt.
II, 1948, pp. 912-21.
2. EXPERIENCES WITH 230-KV ON THE BONNE-
VILLE POWER ADMINISTRATION, A. A. Osipovich,
H. L. Rorden. Midwest Power Conference,
Chicago, Ill., 1952.
3. THE 300/315 KV EXTRA-HIGH-VOLTAGE
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM OF THE AMERICAN GAS AND
ELECTRIC COMPANY, Philip Sporn, E. L. Peterson,
I. W. Gross, H. P. St. Clair. AIEE Transactions,
vol. 70, pt. I, 1951, pp. 64-72.
4. EXPERIENCE GAINED WITH THE SWEDISH
400-Kv POWER TIRANSMISSION AND THE NOVEL
FEATURES OF THE SYSTEM, B. G. Rathsman, G.
Jancke. AIEE Transactions, vol. 72, pt. III,
Dec. 1953, pp. 1089-1100.
5. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH OF STATION AND LINE
INSULATION TO SWITCHING SURGES, P. L. Bellaschi,
L. B. Rademacher. AIEE Transactions, vol. 65,
1946, pp. 1047-54.
6. FLASHOVER VOLTAGE OF INSULATORS AND
SPARK GAPS IN THE INTERMEDIATE RANGE BE-
TWEEN IMPULSE-VOLTAGE TESTING AT OPERATING
FREQUENCY, W. Wanger, H. Huber. Brown
Boveri Review, Baden, Switzerland, vol. 27, Dec.
1940.
Discussion
S. G. Pann (Department of Water and
Powver, Los Angeles, Calif.): Mr. Bellaschi's
interesting paper discusses two basic factors
which are important to the design of high-
voltage transmission lines: 1. swing angles of
insulator assemblies under wind conditions;
and 2. permissible electrical clearances be-
tween conductor and tower at various con-
ductor positions, system conditions, and
meterological phenomena. Both of these
factors assume an even greater economic as-
pect in transmission lines of 230 kv and
higher providing that adherence to the pres-
ent provisions of the NESC Code is desired
or required. Industry experience and re-
cent investigations, both here and abroad.
indicate that the maximum swing angle of 45
degrees and the minimum conductor to
tower clearances provided for in the N'ESC
Code are not realistic for transmission lines
at the higher voltages. This is especially
true, as Mr. Bellaschi points out, if the prob-
ability factor of simultaneous occurrence of
swing angle and overvoltage is taken into
consideration.
In attempting to set up permissible clear-
ances between conductor and tower, it is ad-
visable to consider not only the insulation
strength of air but that of the insulator
string as well. Thus, a proper balance and
co-ordination between porcelain and air in-
sulation strengths will be achieved.
There is a definite and painful lack of en-
gineering information on swing angles of in-
sulator assemblies under wind conditions.
Wind tunnel and field tests conducted in
Europe during the last few years with both
single and bundle conductors show that
further studies and investigations are
needed on this subject.
Winds, especially at the higher velocities,
are seldom constant in time and space both
horizontally and vertically. Furthermore,
they are influenced by climatic and topo-
graphic conditions. In transmission lines
OCTOBER 1954 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
7. FLASHOVER CHARACTERISTICS OF ROD GAPS
AND INSULATORS, Joint EEI-NEMA Committee
Report. AIEE Transactions (Electrical Engi-
neering), vol. 56, June 1937, pp. 712-14.
8. MEASUREMENT OF TEST VOLTAGE IN DI-
ELECTRIC TESTS. AIEE Standard No. 4, Jan.
1953 revision.
9. WIND EXTREMES AS DESIGN FACTORS, Arnold
Court. Journal, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia,
Pa., July 1953, pp. 39-56.
10. ACTION DES VENTS DE GRANDE VITESSE SUR
LES CONDUCTEURS DES LIGNES AERIENNES, R.
Poyart. Bulletin, Societe Francaise des Elec-
triciens, Paris, France, Nov. 1953.
11. DESIGN FEATURES OF THE BRITISH 275 KV
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM, F. J. Lane, A. J. Gibbons.
Report No. 229. CIGRE, Paris, France, 1952.
12. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON IMPULSE AND 60-
CYCLE STRENGTH OP ELECTRICAL APPARATUS,
P. L. Bellaschi, Paul Evans. AIEE Transactions
(Electrical Engineering), vol. 63, May 1944, pp.
236-41.
13. REFERENCE VALUES FOR TEMPERATURE,
PRESSURE AND HUMIDITY, P. L. Bellaschi, P. H.
McAuley. AIEE Transactions, vol. 59, Dec.
1940, pp. 669-75.
14. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGH-VOLTAGE TEST-
ING, Joint EEI-NEMA Committee Report. AIEE
Transactions (Electrical Engineering), vol. 59, Oct.
1940, pp. 598-602.
the swing angle of an insulator assembly is
produced by an effective wind in which the
combined effects of wind velocity and direc-
tion on the span length are integrated into a
transverse force at the suspension point of
the conductor.
Assuming for simplicity that a wind has
constant direction, uniform front, and
variable speed, the question arises: Should
the extreme (fastest mile) or the strongest
maximum (5-minute average) wind velocity
be used for calculating swing angles? The
paper indicates that Mr. Bellaschi favors the
latter value. However, calculations with
large-size conductors indicate that maximum
swing angle can be attained in a matter of
seconds.
The Department of Water and Power re-
cently undertook to develop a simple and in-
expensive type of instrumentation to
measure maximum swing angles of insulator
assemblies. A few of these instruments are
already in operation at various locations on
the Department's transmission system. In
addition, we are developing a more elaborate
instrumentation technique which will enable
us to record continuously the swing angle of
an insulator assembly and the wind velocity
component normal to the line. For this
purpose, we have obtained a set of wind
instruments which incorporate special fea-
tures for continuously resolving wind speeds
into X and Y components with respect to
the line. This instrumentation will be used
on full-scale field installations employing
both single and bundle conductors. The
purpose of these tests will be to obtain infor-
mation on swing angles under natural
winds and actual line conditions.
E. V. Sayles and C. E. Waits (Consumers
Power Company, Jackson, Mich.): In this
fine paper, the author has presented a logical
method of determining electrical design
clearances for higher voltage transmission
lines. The method is particularly applica-
ble to line designs above 230 kv where im-
15. THE SELECTION OF POWER STATION INSU-
LATORS TO MEET SPECIFIED IMPULSE VOLTAGE
PERFORMANCE, P. M. Ross. Report No. 2009,
CIGRE, Paris, France, 1946.
16. FLASHOVER CHARACTERISTICS OF INSULATION,
P. H. McAuley. Electric Journal, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
July 1938.
17. A FORMULA FOR ESTIMATING TOWER WEIGHTS
AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE ECONOMICS OF
TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN, William S. Peterson.
CIGRE, Paris, France, 1950.
18. CO-ORDINATION OF INSULATION AND SPACING
OF TRANSMISSION LINE CONDUCTORS, W. W.
Lewis. AIEE Transactions (Electr-ical Engineer-
ing), vol. 65, Oct. 1946, pp. 690-94.
19. LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE3 OF 200-KV TRANS-
MISSION LINES-IT, AIEE Committee Report.
AIEE Transactions (Electrical Eingineering), vol.
65, Feb. 1948, pp. 70-76.
20. SWITCHING SURGE VOLTAGES IN HIGH-VOLTAGE
STATIONS, I. B. Johnson, A. J. Schultz. AIEE
Transactions, vol. 73, pt. III, Feb. 1954, pp. 69-79.
21. ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBU-
TION REFERENCE BOOK (book). Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, E. Pittsburgh, Pa., 4th ed.,
chap. 15, "Power System Voltages and Currents
During Abnormal Conditions," 1930.
22. WIND EXTREMES AS DESIGN FACTORS,
Arnold Court. Journal, Franklin Institute, Phila-
delphia, Pa., July 1953, p. 49.
pulse insulation is not necessarily the
critical insulation path in the structure de-
sign. The author's basic assumptions ap-
pear valid and his reasoning sound. How-
ever, with the limited experience with volt-
ages as high as 345 kv, he has, very properly,
applied his method to 230-kv and 288-kv de-
signs, where there is some 20 to 30 years of
experience, to test the sounidness of the
method. It may be interesting to extend
this test to the 138-kv class of line.
Applying Mr. Bellaschi's method to the
138-kv class, the values for this class in
Table II would be:
Voltage class: 138 kv (145 kv).
Switching overvoltages 2.5aX60-cycle crest:
300 kv.
Full wave impulse voltage equivalent:
330 kv.
Design strength, full wave: 460 kv.
Permissible clearances, conductor to tower:
27 inches.
In Table III the 138-kv values would be:
Voltage class: 138 kv (145 kv).
Clearances for switching overvoltages:
2.5X60-cycle crest: 27 inches
2.75X60-cycle crest: 30 inches
3.0X60-cycle crest: 33 inches
Based on the 45 years of experience that
Consumers Power Company in Michigan has
had with 138-kv line design and operation,
the values just given are reasonable. In-
cluded in the Consumers 138-kv system are
300 miles of single wood-pole line insulated
with seven units of either 3-inch by 10-inch
or 53/,-inch by 10-inch suspension insula-
tors. The use of seven units is dictated by
leakage requirements and six units would
withstand switching surges. The wet flash-
over of six 5-inch by 10-inch units is 235 kv,
and the equivalent gap distance is 27 inches
The seven 5-inch by 10-inch unit string ac-
tually used has a wet flashover of 270 kv and
an equivalent gap distance of 31 inches.
1197
These values agree quite well with those of
the author.
The Transmission and Distribution Com-
mittee has proposed using the 60-cycle-per-
second wet flashover voltage as the funda-
mental basis for the insulation of transmis-
sion lines to withstand power frequency and
switching surges. Applying this method
but using the author's basic assumptions of
5-per-cent allowance for overvoltage, switch-
ing overvoltages 2.5 times crest, 10-per-cent
nonstandard atmospheric conditions, and a
15-per-cent margin for safety, the following
clearance will result:
138 kv, 31 inches
230 kv, 51 inches
288 kv, 64 inches
345 kv, 78 inches
These values are slightly higher than those
given by Mr. Bellaschi's method.
He has also made a strong case for revising
the requirements of the NESC Fifth Edition
pertaining to clearances from conductors to
supports (Rule 235 A 3). He particularly
challenges the requirement that clearances
be maintained with an insulator swing 45
degrees on steel structures. He proposed a
swing value of 35 degrees as more realistic.
At voltages above 230 kv the angle of in-
sulator swing can profoundly affect line cost,
and with the large conductors used on higher
voltage lines a 45-degree angle is certainly
not realistic and a 35-degree angle may be
unnecessarily severe.
On a tangent structure with no line deflec-
tion angle, an insulator string is acted upon
by three significant moments. The first
moment due to wind on the conductor tends
to swing the string toward the tower. The
second and third moments due to the weight
of conductor and the weight of insulator
string tend to restrain the string from swing-
ing toward the tower. If a very common
condition of equal wind and weight spans is
assumed and the weight of the insulator
strinig neglected, insulator swing angles for
1.6-inch expanded steel-reinforced aluminum
cable will be 16 degrees for a 4-pound wind
on bare conductor, 30 degrees for an 8-
pound wind on bare conductor, and 15 de-
grees for a 4-pound wind on conductor with
1/2-inch radial ice. For a large conven-
tional steel-reinforced aluminum-cable con-
ductor such as 1,590,000 circular mils (diam-
eter 1.545 inches), the angles are all some-
what smaller and the same is true of large
copper conductors such as 750,000 circular
mils, type Hedernheim (diameter 1.622
inches).
Considering the magnitude of these
angles, it does not seem possible to assign an
arbitrary angle of 45 degrees or even 35
degrees without unduly penalizing the de-
sign. A specified wind pressure such as 4
pounds per square foot on the bare conduc-
tor is certainly more realistic. For 25 years
Consumers in Michigan has used a 4-pound
wind on the bare conductor as a design fac-
tor in determining clearances to provide the
desired impulse insulation value. The ex-
perience has been good and it would seem
that this method would be suitable at the
higher voltages where switching surges
rather than lightning determine clearances.
Richard F. Stevens (Bonneville Power
Administration, Portland, Oreg.): Mr. Bel-
1198 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
laschi's fine paper is a much needed contri-
bution.
Implied in his conclusions, of course, is the
need of a modernization of our code for elec-
trical clearances. Some inertia must be
overcome in order to do so, and much patient
work and effort will be necessary to resolve
conflicting opinions and to agree on new
values.
Therefore, we should first ask whether the
possible savings justify this effort. If the
NESC formula is applied to the nominal
voltages of 230, 288, and 345 kv, values of
58.7, 74.7, and 87 inches are obtained, which
are in remarkably close agreement with the
right-hand column of Table III, the clear-
ances derived by Mr. Bellaschi for a three
times normal switching surge. Hence, on
this basis little could be gained by code
revision.
If, on the other hand, it is possible to de-
sign basically for a two and one-half times
normal switching surge, (and with many
modern systems this should be reasonable)
then fairly worth-while savings in clearance
can be realized. (It should be emphasized
that even with design on this basis and if
larger switching surges should occur, it is
likely that many and perhaps most of these
will fail to cause flashovers, as the sum of
the other adverse factors will, during most
of the time, usually be less than that upon
which the design is based.)
Calculations made by the Bonneville
Power Administration check quite closely
with Mr. Bellaschi's estimate that savings
from the lowered clearances which he pro-
poses would be of the order of 5 to 10 per
cent of the cost and weight of the transmis-
sion towers. In terms of total line cost ex-
clusive of right of way and clearing, this
would probably be of the order of 3 to 6 per
cent.
If this percentage is disappointing, it must
be remembered that a decreased electrical
clearance requirement permits shorter arms,
but has no important effect on the height of
single-circuit structures, or the horizontal
stresses. Hence the lower part of the tower,
where most of the weight is, is loaded about
the same as before.
Nevertheless, even 3 to 6 per cent on, say,
a 5,000,000-dollar transmission line, would
represent a $150,000 to $300,000 saving,
which cannot be dismissed as of no account.
Next, if it worth while to change the code,
what form should the new code take? In
deriving minimum clearances should alti-
tude factors suitable for an 8,000-foot high
Rocky Mountain pass be used, and imposed
on a system operating in Indiana? Should
switching surges be estimated on the basis
of the most badly restriking breaker in serv-
ice in the country, and the result imposed
on a system using improved modern switch-
gear? It seems to me that the answer is a
definite no. Mr. Bellaschi, in effect, says
the same thing.
I believe we need a code which can be
directly applied to the large majority of
well-designed modern systems with modern
equipment, and with no unusual adverse
conditions as, for instance, extreme altitude.
It would be necessary for our proposed new
code to define the systems closely which
would fall into this preferred risk category.
We might say that our basic rules would
apply under 3,000 feet, just as we say a stand-
ard bushing is good under 3,000 feet. We
might perhaps require that breakers be of a
design which limits the number of restrikes
to one or less. Systems less favorably
situated would then apply additional safety
factors, just as an engineer designing a high-
altitude substation installation might call
for special bushings.
However, if corrections are to be applied
intelligently to the new code values, it will
be necessary to know the assumptions and
the philosophy upon which the new basic
code clearances are founded. A statement
on this should, I believe, be included in any
new code, or at least widely publicized and
made readily available. Thus the designer
would have a basis from which to start when
nonstandard conditions cOnfront him.
Mr. Bellaschi presents such a derivation
and philosophy, which I believe could be
expanded a little. For instance, nonstand-
ard atmosphere covers temperature, humid-
ity, and barometric pressure, which in turn
are related to altitude. What range of
variation is expected in each of these, and
why was the particular figure of 10 per cent
selected? How should an allowance be
made for Ferranti effect? It might be
profitable to explore a little more thoroughly
the probability and the extent of the pyra-
miding of adverse factors. Further dis-
cussion of this, which represents the key to
the whole problem, would be helpful.
Finally, how serious are the consequences
to a system of a rare flashover, at the time
when it is most likely to occur, namely, when
charging current on a line is being inter-
rupted, and at a point where it can be made
most likely to occur, namely, a gap at the
line terminal?
0. D. Evans (Oklahoma Gas and Electric
Company, Oklahoma City, Okla).: This
paper cites further proof of the need for re-
examining the NESC, particularly in re-
gard to clearances for the higher voltage
transmission lines. Already under con-
sideration is the seemingly excessive clear-
ance to ground required by the Code for the
higher voltage transmission lines. At the
time of the present revision of the Code,
probably little attention was given these
higher voltage lines since they constituted
an insignificant part of the transmission grid
of this country. The rapid increase in de-
mand for electrical power in the last 12
years has resulted in the construction of
several of these lines, and the future trend is
certainly in that direction for all companies.
Also such things as the upper level of switch-
ing overvoltages and the strength of air to
switching and impulse surges have become
better understood since the last revision of
the Code. The paper seems to cover all the
factors that should be considered in the elec-
trical clearance requirements between in-
sulator assemblies and towers.
The economies to be attained in the higher
voltage lines, as pointed out in the paper,
certainly justify the use of as small clearances
as conditions permit. On shielded lines,
the saving may be more pronounced, since a
shorter arm for the conductor will require a
shorter arm for the shield wire to maintain a
particular shield angle.
The NESC rule 235 A 3(b) now specifies
a 30-degree swing angle for determining
clearances from line conductors to supports
of wood pole lines although a 45-degree
swing angle is specified for steel tower lines.
The logic behind this difference in specifica-
OCTOBER 1 954
 (A) (B)
Fig. 2. 220-ky tangent tower. Comparison between standard and cross-catenary suspension towers
A Standard rotated tower. Spdn 1,100 feet 0 inch; sag 33 feet 0 inch at 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Total width including 35-degree conductor
and insulator swing is 99 feet 0 inch
B-Cross-catenary tower. Span 1,100 feet 0 inch or 1,200 feet 0 inch; sag 33 feet 0 inch or 40 feet 6 inches, both at 80 degrees Fahrenheit.
Total width, including 35-degree conductor swing, is 84 feet for 1,100-foot span and 88 feet for 1,200-foot span

tion is not apparent. It seems to me that
if the 30-degree swing angle is satisfactory
for wood pole lines, then certainly the 35-
degree angle should be satisfactory for steel
tower lines.
A re-examination of the present NESC is
an expensive and time-consuming process,
requiring much committee work. Never-
theless, it seems justified because of the re-
sulting economies as more and more higher
voltage transmission lines are constructed.
As far as safety is concerned, the higher volt-
age lines would be less hazardous with the re-
duced clearances shown in the paper than
with present NESC clearances, since less
rigging would be required for hot-line main-
tenance. With shielded lines, armor rods,
and fast reclosing breakers, the danger that
a transmission line will burn down is remote
even though a flashover to a tower should
occur, and it is almost inconceivable that
hot-line maintenance will be undertaken
in winds required to produce even a 35-de-
gree insulator swing.
A. S. Runciman (The Shawinigan Water &
Power Company, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada): A discussion on phase wire
clearances to ground has been long overdue
and Mr. Bellaschi is to be commended for
his frank and clear paper on the subject.
All discussions on single-circuit high-volt-
age line supports deal with standard types.
It may be an opportune time for study of
nonstandard proposals, such as the design
known as cross catenary, as shown in Fig.
2. This radical change in construction,
fundamentally, permits less phase spacing
because of reduction or elimination of in-
sulators in suspension. With all of the
insulators in the cross span, no swing is
possible at the point of conductor support
and hence the phase spacing may be re-
duced by the amount of the horizontal
swing plus the width of the support itself.
There appears to be a very real reduction
in right of way required by as much as one-
third of that normally necessary. Because
two-thirds of most line material is in the
tangent supports, and because of the large
and heavy conductors nothing worth while
can be altered in the dead-end or anchor
supports, the decreased weight of the inter-
mediate supports may be a worth-while
subject for analysis, taking into account new
types of design, such as the cross catenary
just mentioned.
F. 0. Wollaston (B. C. Electric Company
Ltd., Vancouver, B. C., Canada): The com-
pany with which I am associated has de-
signed two 345-kv lines, one of which is in
operation' at 230 kv. The other is under
construction. My discussion will compare
our design data with the author's proposals.
The author derives permissible clearances
from conductor to tower in Table II by ap-
plying a series of multiplying factors to the
nominal system voltage. We consider that
this process determines the minimum num-
ber of insulators required, rather than the
electrical clearance. To obtain the full
value of the insulators, the clearance flash-
over should exceed the string flashover.
Accordingly, we feel that the clearances
given in Table II are too small.
A comparison of the factors used by us
with those used by the author to obtain the
required insulation strength to withstand
switching surges is given in Table VI. We
differ in several respects. With regard to
item 1, we think it possible that the maxi-
mum operating voltage of our nominal 345-
kv system may reach 380 kv, rather than
362 kv, as suggested by the author. For
the system we envision, we think a switching
surge magnitude of 3.0 rather than 2.5 is
proper. We have used a factor of 1.15 in-
stead of the newer factor of 1.11 for the
ratio "critical impulse to switching surge."
We have used the more conservative figure

OCTOBER 1954 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher V7oltages 1199
 Table VI. Comparison of Procedures
Bellaschi
1. Maximum operating
voltage (times
nominal) ............. 1.05
2. Crest factor ............ 1.414
3. Switching surge
(time 60-cycle crest) .2.2.5
4. Ratio critical impulse
to switching surge ..... 1.11
5. Ratio impulse with-
stand to impulse
flashover ............. 1.10
6. Nonstandard atmos-
phere ................ 1.10
7. Contaminated atmos-
phere ....................
8. Factor of safety. ... 1 1.15
Over-all factor. .. 5.75
9. Design strength (full
wave positive 11/2X
40 microseconds) ...... 1,150 kv
Table VIl. Comparison of Pro cedures
Bellaschi
9. Design strength (as
per Table VI), kv.... 1,150
10. Minimum number of
standard 53/4 by
10-inch units to
equal item 9 ......... 12.6
11. Item 10 rounded off.... 13
12. Impulse critical
flashover for string
length of item 11. 1, 183
13. Rod gap to equal
item 12, inches ....... 76
14. Rod gap to exceed
item 12 by 10 per
cent, inches .......... 84
15. Wet 60-cycle flash-
over for string
length of item 11,
kv...........2....... 525
16. Rod gap to equal
item 15, inches ....... 62
17. Rod gap to exceed
item 15 by 10 per
cent. inches .......... 68
of 1.15 for the ratio "impulse withstand to
impulse flashover." We have allowed a
factor of 1.10 for contaminated atmos-
phere; the author does not make any allow-
ance. Our over-all factor comes out about
50 per cent higher than the author's because
of these differences. However, our design
strength of 1,700 kv is not converted di-
rectly to air gap clearance to steel as is done
in the paper. Our procedure is illustrated
in Table VII and, for comparison, the data
from the paper are similarly treated.
Item 11 indicates that a 13-unit string is
apparently enough to satisfy the author's
criteria for switching surge strength of a 345-
kv line. Possibly this is an unwarranted
conclusion, since he says in the section
"Influence of Lightning on Clearance to
Tower" that an 18-unit string would nor-
mally be required for a 345-kv line. How-
ever, the paper does not give any reasons
why an 18-unit string should be selected.
In our designs, a minimum length of string
equal to 19 standard 53/4-by-10 inch units
was derived. The actual installations have
1200 Bellaschi-Clearances for Trans. Line Design at Higher Voltages
21-unit strings. Two extra units were
added to ensure successful operation with
B.C. one or two defective insulators in the string.
Electric I find no discussion in the paper of 60-
Company cycle strength requirements, although this is
item 1 of the author's list of conditions which
determine the insulation and clearance re-
quirements of high-voltage lines. In our
1.10 designs, the 60-cvcle conditions were found to
... 1 414 require less string length than switching
*.o surges. Using the longer string required
by switching surges, the clearance to steel
1 1e for wet 60-cycle flashover is found to be less
than is required for switching surges (Table
. . . 1 l.) VII, items 13, 14, 16, and 17).
To obtain the full insulation value of the
... 1.10 insulator string, the clearance to steel should
have about 10 per cent higher flashover
... 1.10
1.1
. strength (Table II, Items 14 and 17). On
- our first line we provided the full 120-inch
..8.e~ clearance derived in Table II (item 14) at
maximum insulator swing. This was re-
. . 1,700 kv considered for our second line. On that
line the clearance is 8 feet at maximum in-
sulator swing. As will be seen from Table
II, item 17, this will withstand the 60-cycle
voltage that would flash the string.
B.C. The maximum angle of swing is calculated
Electric for an actual wind velocity of 40 mph and is
Company 26 degrees. If the maximum switching
surge voltage should occur when the conduc-
tors are at maximum swing, the line would
1,700 flash to the tower. We consider it highly
unlikely that this will occur, for reasons
similar to those given by the author. For a
... 19 4 wind velocity of 31 mph (actual) the clear-
19 ance to steel will be 110 inches. From
Table II, item 13, this is approximately the
l 663 equal of the impulse flashover of the string.
We expect this clearance to be satisfactory
... 19 in operation.
120 REFERENCE
1. THE WAHLEACH HYDROELECTRIc DEVELOP-
MENT, AIEE Committee Report, AIEE Trans-
.. 740 actions, vol. 72, pt. III, Dec. 1953, pp. 1077-88.
88
P. L. Bellaschi: The discussions, both oral
... 97 and written, are gratifying. Almost unan-
imously they center attention on the need
of re-examining the NESC, in particular,
the requirements for electrical clearances
in transmission line design. It is reassur-
ing that the majority are in accord with the
basic approach and the principal conclu-
sions of the paper.
In regard to the pressing need for en-
gineering data on swing angles of insulator
assemblies under wind conditions, I concur
with Mr. Pann. The investigation pro-
posed by the Los Angeles Department of
Water and Power is indeed a step in the
right direction. Although field data are
still limited, the findings from recent in-
vestigations abroad (see reference 10 of the
paper) substantiate the use of reduced swing
angles as a criterion of design. Whether
extreme velocity (fastest mile) or strongest
maximum (5-minute average) shall be the
accepted basis of design, is also a question
that can be resolved through further studies
in the laboratory and in the field and is one
which calls for a realistic evaluation of the
probability of simultaneous occurrence of
maximum switching overvoltages in relation
to these contingencies.
The experience at 138 kv reported by Mr.
Sayles and Mr. Waits provides valuable
data on clearances for the lower range of
transmission voltages and also a useful refer-
ence for correlation with the higher voltages.
With 60-cycle flashover (wet) as the basis
for derivation, somewhat higher clearances
are naturally expected. The discussion
clearly gives support to correspondingly re-
duced swing angles where light loading
conditions prevail, as borne out by experi-
ence, compared to a 30- or 35-degree angle
for heavy-loading design (8-pound wind per
square foot, 1/2-inch ice, 0 degrees Fahren-
heit).
The justification for revision of the Code
and the basic approach in the proposed re-
vision are so well presented by Mr. Stevens
that little need be added. In regard to the
factor for nonstandard atmospheric condi-
tions (temperature, barometric pressure,
and absolute humidity) the figure of 10 per
cent is based on experience in testing out-
doors and indoors over two decades, and on
an analysis of the conditions in the United
States (see, for example, references 12, 13,
14, 15, and 16). The author concurs with
Mr. Stevens that in the proposed revision
of the Code, the basis for the respective fac-
tors and their derivation must be clearly
stated and spelled out in full.
As set forth by Mr. Evans, the economies
that accrue from reduced clearances anid a
reduced swing angle are even greater for the
shielded lines. The need of re-examining
the Code is again amply apparent from his
discussion.
The author is not in a position at this time
to assess critically the advantages and limi-
tations of the cross-catenary tower design
proposed in the interesting discussion by Mr.
Runciman. Certainly, should this design
prove feasible and economical it would elim-
inate a number of vexing problems.
The larger clearances adapted by Mr.
Wollaston are no doubt dictated by the par-
ticular conditions encountered in the initial
stage of system development for the first
345-kv line. In the design of the second
line substantial reductions in the clearances
(from 120 to 96 inches) were effected.
The clearances and the number of insula-
tors recommended in the paper apply to a
modern interconnected system, for the con-
ditions usually encountered and discussed
in the paper. The insulator units recom-
mended (16 for 288 kv and 18 for 345 kv)
are based on, and take into full considera-
tion, 60-cycle voltages, switching overvolt-
ages, and lightning. To illustrate, the num-
ber of insulators required for 60-cycle opera-
tion allow for system dynamic overvoltages,
contaminated atmosphere, damaged or de-
fective insulators, and hot-line maintenance,
a more liberal factor of safety because of the
uncertainties of creepage surfaces, in addi-
tion to the factors already listed in the paper
for the air-jump clearances. The clear-
ances and the number of insulators recom-
mended provide a well-balanced, co-ordi-
nated design.
Utilities in increasing number are adopt-
ing 230-ky and the higher voltages to meet
system-growth requirements more economi-
cally. At this juncture, the measures and
proposals conducive to more rational eco-
nomical line design are certainly timely.
OCTOBER 1 954