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Transistor Circuits
This page explains the operation of transistors in circuits.
Practical matters such as testing, precautions when soldering
and identifying leads are covered by the Transistors page.
Types of transistor
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
Transistor currents
The diagram shows the two current paths through
a transistor. You can build this circuit with two
standard 5mm red LEDs and any general purpose
low power NPN transistor (BC108, BC182 or
BC548 for example).
When the switch is open no base current flows, so the transistor switches off
the collector current. Both LEDs are off.
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in
the controlled circuit (collector current) is called common emitter mode. It is the most
widely used arrangement for transistors so it is the one to learn first.
Additional notes:
• A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the
base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged.
• Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating.
• The current gain hFE can vary widely, even for transistors of the same
type!
• A transistor that is full on (with RCE = 0) is said to be 'saturated'.
• When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is
reduced to almost 0V.
• When a transistor is saturated the collector
current Ic is determined by the supply
voltage and the external resistance in the
collector circuit, not by the transistor's
current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a
saturated transistor is less than the current
gain hFE.
• The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is
much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the
first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is
equal to the two individual gains multiplied together:
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that
only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on.
Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you can make up
your own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally
TR2 will need to be high power. The maximum collector current Ic(max) for
the pair is the same as Ic(max) for TR2.
This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not
need to consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching
circuits are themaximum collector current Ic(max) and the minimum
current gain hFE(min). The transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless
you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There is a table
showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page.
For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional
model above.
Protection diode
If the load is
a motor, relay or solenoid (or any other
device with a coil) a diode must be
connected across the load to protect the
transistor from the brief high voltage
produced when the load is switched off.
The diagram shows how a protection
diode is connected 'backwards' across the
load, in this case a relay coil.
Current flowing through a coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when
the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief
high voltage across the coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The
protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief
current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field
dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the
induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to
transistors and ICs.
Relays
Advantages of relays:
• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
• Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
Most ICs cannot supply large output currents so it may be necessary to use a
transistor to switch the larger current required for output devices such as
lamps, motors and relays. The 555 timer IC is unusual because it can supply
a relatively large current of up to 200mA which is sufficient for some output
devices such as low current lamps, buzzers and many relay coils without
needing to use a transistor.
A resistor RB is required to limit the current flowing into the base of the
transistor and prevent it being damaged. However, RB must be sufficiently low
to ensure that the transistor is thoroughly saturated to prevent it overheating,
this is particularly important if the transistor is switching a large current (>
100mA). A safe rule is to make the base current IB about five times larger than
the value which should just saturate the transistor.
Choosing a suitable NPN transistor
Example
The output from a 4000 series CMOS IC is required to operate a relay with a 100 coil.
The supply voltage is 6V for both the IC and load. The IC can supply a maximum
current of 5mA.
1. Load current = Vs/RL = 6/100 = 0.06A = 60mA, so transistor must have Ic(max) >
60mA.
2. The maximum current from the IC is 5mA, so transistor must have hFE(min) >
60 (5 × 60mA/5mA).
3. Choose general purpose low power
transistor BC182 with Ic(max) = 100mA and
hFE(min) = 100.
4. RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE = 0.2 × 100 × 100 =
2000 . so choose RB = 1k8 or 2k2.
5. The relay coil requires a protection diode.
The procedure for choosing a suitable PNP transistor is exactly the same as
that for an NPN transistor described above.
Note that the switching action of this circuit is not particularly good because
there will be an intermediate brightness when the transistor will be partly
on (not saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of overheating
unless it is switching a small current. There is no problem with the small LED
current, but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is likely to cause
overheating.
Other sensors, such as a thermistor, can be used with this circuit, but they may
require a different variable resistor. You can calculate an approximate value
for the variable resistor (Rv) by using a multimeter to find the minimum and
maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax):
For example an LDR: Rmin = 100 , Rmax = 1M , so Rv = square root of (100 × 1M)
= 10k .
You can make a much better switching circuit with sensors connected to a
suitable IC (chip). The switching action will be much sharper with no partly on
state.
Any general purpose low power NPN transistor can be used. For general use
RB = 10k and RC = 1k , then the inverter output can be connected to a
device with an input impedance (resistance) of at least 10k such as a logic
IC or a 555 timer (trigger and reset inputs).
If you are connecting the inverter to a CMOS logic IC input (very high
impedance) you can increase RB to 100k and RC to 10k , this will reduce the
current used by the inverter.
Navigation
Transistor as a Switch
Page: 4 of 8 RESET
When used as an AC signal amplifier, the transistors Base biasing voltage is applied so that it always
operates within its "active" region, that is the linear part of the output characteristics curves are used.
However, both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as an "ON/OFF" type solid
state switch by biasing its Base differently to that of an amplifier. Solid state switches are one of the main
applications of transistors. Transistor switches are used for controlling high power devices such as motors,
solenoids or lamps, but they can also used in digital electronics and logic gate circuits.
If the circuit uses the Bipolar Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing of the transistor, either NPN or
PNP is arranged to operate at the sides of the V-I characteristics curves we have seen previously. The
areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region.
This means then that we can ignore the operating Q-point biasing and voltage divider circuitry required for
amplification, and use the transistor as a switch by driving it back and forth between "fully-OFF" (cut-off
region) and "fully-ON" (saturation region) as shown below.
Operating Regions
The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the "Cut-off" region while the blue area to the
left represents the "Saturation" region of the transistor. Both these transistor regions are defined as:
1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero output collector
current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large depletion layer and no current
flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor is switched "Fully-OFF".
Cut-off Characteristics
Then we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" of a bipolar transistor switch as being, both
junctions reverse biased, IB < 0.7V and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must be
negative with respect to the Base.
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied, resulting in
maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage drop which results in the
depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current flowing through the transistor. Therefore
the transistor is switched "Fully-ON".
Saturation Characteristics
Then we can define the "saturation region" or "ON mode" of a bipolar transistor switch as being, both
junctions forward biased, IB > 0.7V and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must
be positive with respect to the Base.
Then the transistor operates as a "single-pole single-throw" (SPST) solid state switch. With a zero signal
applied to the Base of the transistor it turns "OFF" acting like an open switch and zero collector current
flows. With a positive signal applied to the Base of the transistor it turns "ON" acting like a closed switch
and maximum circuit current flows through the device.
An example of an NPN Transistor as a switch being used to operate a relay is given below. With inductive
loads such as relays or solenoids a flywheel diode is placed across the load to dissipate the back EMF
generated by the inductive load when the transistor switches "OFF" and so protect the transistor from
damage. If the load is of a very high current or voltage nature, such as motors, heaters etc, then the load
current can be controlled via a suitable relay as shown.
The circuit resembles that of the Common Emitter circuit we looked at in the previous tutorials. The
difference this time is that to operate the transistor as a switch the transistor needs to be turned either fully
"OFF" (cut-off) or fully "ON" (saturated). An ideal transistor switch would have infinite circuit resistance
between the Collector and Emitter when turned "fully-OFF" resulting in zero current flowing through it and
zero resistance between the Collector and Emitter when turned "fully-ON", resulting in maximum current
flow. In practice when the transistor is turned "OFF", small leakage currents flow through the transistor and
when fully "ON" the device has a low resistance value causing a small saturation voltage (VCE) across it.
Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, in both the cut-off and saturation regions the power
dissipated by the transistor is at its minimum.
In order for the Base current to flow, the Base input terminal must be made more positive than the Emitter
by increasing it above the 0.7 volts needed for a silicon device. By varying this Base-Emitter voltage VBE,
the Base current is also altered and which in turn controls the amount of Collector current flowing through
the transistor as previously discussed. When maximum Collector current flows the transistor is said to
be Saturated. The value of the Base resistor determines how much input voltage is required and
corresponding Base current to switch the transistor fully "ON".
Example No1
Using the transistor values from the previous tutorials of: β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib = 20uA, find the
value of the Base resistor (Rb) required to switch the load "ON" when the input terminal voltage
exceeds2.5v.
The next lowest preferred value is: 82kΩ, this guarantees the transistor switch is always saturated.
Example No2
Again using the same values, find the minimum Base current required to turn the transistor "fully-ON"
(saturated) for a load that requires 200mA of current when the input voltage is increased to 5.0V. Also
calculate the new value of Rb.
Transistor switches are used for a wide variety of applications such as interfacing large current or high
voltage devices like motors, relays or lamps to low voltage digital logic IC's or gates like AND gates
orOR gates. Here, the output from a digital logic gate is only +5v but the device to be controlled may
require a 12 or even 24 volts supply. Or the load such as a DC Motor may need to have its speed
controlled using a series of pulses (Pulse Width Modulation). transistor switches will allow us to do this
faster and more easily than with conventional mechanical switches.
The base resistor, Rb is required to limit the output current from the logic gate.
We can also use PNP transistors as switches, the difference this time is that the load is connected to
ground (0v) and the PNP transistor switches power to it. To turn the PNP transistor as a switch "ON" the
Base terminal is connected to ground or zero volts (LOW) as shown.
Sometimes the DC current gain of the bipolar transistor is too low to directly switch the load current or
voltage, so multiple switching transistors are used. Here, one small input transistor is used to switch "ON"
or "OFF" a much larger current handling output transistor. To maximise the signal gain, the two transistors
are connected in a "Complementary Gain Compounding Configuration" or what is more commonly called a
"Darlington Configuration" were the amplification factor is the product of the two individual transistors.
Darlington Transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP type transistors connected
together so that the current gain of the first transistor is multiplied with that of the current gain of the
second transistor to produce a device which acts like a single transistor with a very high current gain for a
much smaller Base current. The overall current gain Beta (β) or Hfe value of a Darlington device is the
product of the two individual gains of the transistors and is given as:
So Darlington Transistors with very high β values and high Collector currents are possible compared to a
single transistor switch. For example, if the first input transistor has a current gain of 100 and the second
switching transistor has a current gain of 50 then the total current gain will be 100 x 50 = 5000. An
example of the two basic types of Darlington transistor are given below.
One difference to consider when using Darlington transistors over the conventional single bipolar types
when using the transistor as a switch is that the Base-Emitter input voltage ( VBE ) needs to be higher at
approx 1.4v for silicon devices, due to the series connection of the two PN junctions.
• Transistor switches can be used to switch and control lamps, relays or even motors.
• When using the bipolar transistor as a switch they must be either "fully-OFF" or "fully-OFF".
• Transistors that are fully "ON" are said to be in their Saturation region.
• Transistors that are fully "OFF" are said to be in their Cut-off region.
• When using the transistor as a switch, a small Base current controls a much larger Collector load
current.
• When using transistors to switch inductive loads such as relays and solenoids, a "Flywheel
Diode" is used.
• When large currents or voltages need to be controlled, Darlington Transistors can be used.
In the next tutorial about Transistors, we will look at the operation of the junction field effect transistor
known commonly as an JFET. We will also plot the output characteristics curves commonly associated
with JFET amplifier circuits as a function of Source voltage to Gate voltage.