Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility in the U.K.

Asian Small Business Community

Author(s): Ian Worthington, Monder Ram, Trevor Jones
Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 67, No. 2 (Aug., 2006), pp. 201-217
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25123865
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Journal of Business Ethics (2006) 67:201-217 ? Springer 2006
DOI 10.1007/sl0551-006-9024-6

Exploring Corporate Social Ian Worthington

Monder Ram
Responsibility in the U.K. Asian Small
Trevor Jones
Business Community

ABSTPJVCT. Within the limited, but growing, litera of ethnic minority enterprises (Ede et al., 2000;
ture on small business ethics almost no attention has et al., 2003).
Spence
been paid to the issue of social responsibility within This with is
pre-occupation larger organisations
ethnic businesses. a social
minority Using capital per all the more surprising when one considers the social
this paper on an and
spective, reports exploratory and economic of smaller firms to a
into
importance
qualitative investigation the attitudinal and
modern economy. In the U.K. for instance, small
behavioural manifestations of CSR within small and
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) constitute
medium-sized Asian owned or firms in the
managed
over 99% of all businesses and make significant
U.K., with reference to the distinctive factors
particular
It offers alternative contributions to employment, wealth creation,
motivating organisational responses.
of behaviour and investment, innovation and overseas trade. Within
explanations entrepreneurial suggests
areas for further research. the SME sector, ethnic minority businesses represent
around 10% of the total business stock (Barclays
KEY WORDS: Corporate social responsibility, ethnic Bank, 2005). According to the 2001/02 Annual
minority businesses, small and medium-sized enterprises, Local Area Labour Force the level of self
Survey
social drivers of CSR
capital, community engagement,
employment for all ethnic groups mirrors that of the
white community at around 11%, although rates of
s some ethnic
elf-employment among groups (e.g.
Pakistani and Chinese) are considerably higher
Introduction (Barclays Bank, 2005).
It is against this background that the study re

Questions concerning the role of business in ported below was undertaken. In essence the main

society have
engaged academics and practitioners
aim of the research, which was carried out in 2003,
for over three decades and have rise to a was to examine how social responsibility was
given

burgeoning body of literature on the basis for and understood and practised within the Asian small
relative merits of greater corporate social respon business community in the U.K. and to investigate
sibility (CSR) (Carroll 1999; Friedman, 1970). As what motivated Asian small firm owners and/or
the latter phrase implies, the focus of much of this managers to engage in CSR. Given the virtual ab
literature has been the activities of larger firms, sence of any prior research in this area, an
explor
transnational in atory rather than a hypothesis-led approach was
particularly corporations operating
the mainstream of corporate adopted in order to build up a picture of current
experience (Spence
et al., 2003). Only has the concept of experience and practice. Using a framework of social
infrequently
social responsibility been applied to the attitudes capital theory, the intention is that this study will
and behaviour of smaller businesses (Quinn, 1997; provide initial insights into CSR in Asian SMEs and

Spence, 1999; Spence and Rutherfoord, 2001; will form the baseline for further research into eth

Vyakarnam et al., 1997). Nowhere is this observa ical behaviour within ethnic minority communities
tion more pertinent than with respect to the study in the U.K. and elsewhere.
 202Ian Worthington et al.

Literature review seems especially in helping to understand

useful small
firm development and behaviour. We make this
CSR can be examined through a variety of theo claim for at least three main reasons. First, SMEs by
retical lenses. As indicated above, in this paper we dint of their size and scope tend to be embedded in
use the concept of "social capital" as an aid to our local networks, communities and other
ongoing
understanding and analysis of social responsibility relationships that might be expected to provide
within the Asian small business community in the various forms of, and opportunities for, creating
U.K. We discuss this approach in three steps, relating social capital within the organisational environment
social capital to the study of SMEs, CSR and Asian (Werner and Spence, 2004). The exploitation of this
small businesses, respectively. social capital has been shown to be an important part
of doing business within the small firm community
(Cooke and Clifton, 2003; Cooke and Wills, 1999).
Social capital and SMEs Second, many SMEs operate in local markets and
have developed close relationships with their net
Social capital has been defined in numerous ways works of suppliers, customers and employees. These
and with varying degrees of conceptual clarity. relationships tend to be qualitatively different from
McGrath and Sparks (2005, p. 46), for example, those of larger businesses in that they are often
argue that it can "best be thought of as the human characterised by high levels of informality, personal
elements, such as
learning,
trust and innovation, that knowledge and familial ties (Southwell, 2004) that
are created and enhanced during personal interac can help to engender trust and reciprocity in net
tions"; McBain (2005, p. 25) as the "resources, such work interactions. Third, the coincidence of own
as psychological states and behavioural expectations, ership and control that typifies smaller businesses
embedded within and available through a network provides a context within which individual and
of relationships." Following Bourdieu (1986, 1993), organisational relationships frequently merge and can
Nahapiet and Ghosal (1998, p. 243) and Putnam become mutually reinforcing,
as owner-managers

(1995) define it as "the sum of the actual and build upon their personal and social ties to engage in
potential resources embedded within, available actions which can help to develop organisational
through, and derived from the network of rela social capital (see below). For smaller family enter
tionships possessed by an individual or social unit." prises in particular (e.g. micro firms), there tend to
While Putnam (2000, p. 19) states that it refers to be blurred boundaries between the household and
"connections among individuals-social networks and the firm (Baines and Wheelock, 1998), a fact which
the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that allows the organisation to draw substantially upon
arise from them." resources inherent in family ties and informal rela
Boiled down to its essence, social capital concerns tionships as well as those embedded in business
the resources which reside in, and emanate from, networks and other forms of association.

social interaction within institutions, networks and

relationships (e.g. trust, loyalty, co-operation,

respect, friendship); what Portes (1998) deems the Social capital and CSR
positive outcomes of sociability. Like other forms of
- - seen
capital, it is normally though not invariably As implied in the discussion above, social capital also
as a beneficialresource, having linked variously been offers a useful tool for understanding business ethics/
to the development of human capital (Coleman, CSR within the small firm context (Spence et al.,
1988; Loury, 1977) and to the economic perfor 2003, 2004). Extant research on small firm attitudes
mance of firms (Baker, 1990), geographic regions and behaviour indicates that SMEs frequently and
(Putnam, 1993, 1995) and even nation states willingly engage in a variety of social, ethical and
(Fukuyama, 1995). environmental activities that involve interactions
While all organisations can provide institutional beyond their direct
commercial concerns (see e.g.
settings conducive to the development of social BCC, 2000) and which, as previously indicated, help
capital (Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998), the concept to embed them more fully in the community in
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 203

which they exist and operate. Put simply, a firm's (Janjuha-Jivraj, 2003) and as a mechanism for
involvement in various forms of socially responsible mobilising businesses' resources in the absence or

behaviour not only contributes to the "common insufficiency of external sources of assistance (Flap
good", but it can also help to build social capital for et al., 2000; Ram et al., 2003).
individuals, for the enterprise (Moon, 2001; Spence While theoretical explanations of Asian entrepre
and Schmidpeter, 2003) and for the community as a neurship per se remain a contested arena
(see e.g.
whole (Habisch, 2004). Barrett et al., 1996; Jones and Ram, 2003; Ram et al.,
Adopting a social capital approach to small firm 2000), there is broad agreement within the literature
CSR has analytical appeal, not least because social that the mobiUsation and exploitation of social capital is
- -
responsibility basically focuses on how firms do an
important
no means feature
though by unique
business and on the contributions
they make to the of Asian entrepreneurial activity. Moreover while the
economy and to society generally. In making such family and co-ethnic ties have been regularly identi
contributions through various forms of civic, social fied by researchers as key resources utilised within
and economic engagement, small firm owner
many Asian enterprises, a number of studies have
managers (and employees)their interact with a linked ethnic business to entrepre
development
variety of individuals and groups, thereby creating a neurial involvement in other networks and relation
network of formal and informal relationships within ships within the wider community, including business
(and sometimes beyond) the local community clubs and associations, chambers of commerce and

(Cooke and Wills, 1999) that act as both a source other forms of civic engagement (Amin, 1995;
and expression of social capital within a given spatial Bashir, 1991; Fadahunsi et al., 2000). In practice, of
context. This and its associated social course, with business and social net
engagement, engagement

capital, helps not only to create and sustain small firm works can stem from an entrepreneur's
of this kind
embeddedness, but can also provide certain
organi family and personal ties (Adler and Kwon, 2002),
sational advantages, including the development of building on the social capital of the latter to generate
social contacts and tacit knowledge that might prove mutually beneficial relationships which can satisfy a
commercially beneficial to the enterprise in the fu combination of business and social needs (Janjuha
ture (Habisch, 2004). Jivraj, 2003).
This theme of the interplay between business and
the social relationships and networks within which
Social capital and Asian small businesses firms are entwined is weU represented in the litera
ture and resonates weU with notions of CSR.
The importance of social capital to ethnic business Writers such as Basu (1998), Metcalf et al. (1996)
formation and growth has been a recurring theme in and Werbner (1990), all make the point that, in the
the literature of Asian entrepreneurship. Nowhere is value-system of Asian entrepreneurs, business tends
this more evident than in studies within the "cul to mean more than material enrichment or the

turalist" tradition which have tended to concentrate provision of a livelihood. Among the various stated
on the "ethnic" resources of minority groups, or implied non-material benefits of business life are
including the role of the family and social networks standing in the community and the ability to do
in and activ
good for that community: an explicit
encouraging sustaining entrepreneurial recognition
ity (Basu, 1998; Srinivasan, 1995; Werbner, 1990). that business can no be treated as a
enterprise longer
As Barrett et al. (1996) point out, family and com purely economic but is deeply
phenomenon
munity networks have been shown in past research to grounded in and shaped by its social and cultural
be extremely important within the Asian community environment. This environment resources
provides
as a source of business resources low-cost which the individual from can obtain
including entrepreneur
female labour and finance for business ventures. The his/herpersonal social network of family, friends and
support offered by the Asian community through the community such as interest free loans and uncosted
extended family and kinship ties has been portrayed labour: in short, transactions based on trust rather
as ameans by which Asian businesses have been able than enforced by law or contract, thereby saving the
to negotiate significant competition in their markets SME considerable expense and paperwork.
 204Ian Worthington et al.

for our purposes Spence et al. (2003, p.

Germanely is rather more selective and pragmatic, a finding
18) go beyond the advantages of social capital for the supported by Ram et al's (2003) case studies of
entrepreneur, to
point
out that the entire concept ethnic minority business funding. With the passage
overlaps heavily with the thinking behind CSR, of time, the "need for group based support had
"including issues such as
transparency, honesty,
co diminished" (Janjuha-Jivrav 2003, p. 37). However,
operation, trust, community investment, organisa while the role of ethnic social capital as an infra
tionalcitizenship and goodwill." Of major interest structure for Asian business may well be diminishing,
here is community investment, where "people will the new wave of young entrepreneurs continue to

invest in social relations according to the expected express "the desire to give
something back to the
value of the social resources made by these available community" (Janjuha-Jivrav 2003, p. 41). This
relations" (Flap et al., 2000, p. 147). In this sense, it "giving back" can take many forms and in the fol

might be said that CSR itself is neither more nor less lowing sections we intend to build upon and flesh
a
than process of investment in social capital, inwhich out these insights with explicit reference to CSR.
ostensibly altruistic behaviour may actually achieve a
long term pay-back in terms of enhancing the firm's
reputation, creating a favourable climate of opinion The study
towards it and possibly even attracting reciprocal fa
vours. Certainly the business by owners interviewed Aims and focus
Spence (2003) were
et al. actively developing and
sustaining their social capital networks by all manner As indicated
above, the research was designed to
of engagement with the wider community across a explore CSR practices and motivations within Asian
range from volunteerism and charitable donation to owned or Asian-run SMEs in order to provide insight
civic service as JPs and elected councillors. into the links between smaller Asian businesses and the
Interestingly one of the firms highlighted by these communities inwhich they operate. For the purposes
authors as particularly heavily involved in charity of this study SMEs were defined as having fewer than
work was an Asian-owned family business. While 250 employees in keeping with European Union
one example in itself is hardly indicative, elsewhere definitions. Rather than having a single research
in the literature the case for the strength of ethnic question, the study focused on a number of key issues
minority social capital networks is certainly vigor pertinent to the notions of CSR and social capital.
ously canvassed. Writers like Flap et al. (2000) and These included: (1) owner?manager understanding of
Portes (1998) argue that ethnic minorities have and attitudes to CSR (2) actions taken in pursuit of a
denser and stronger community networks than those more socially responsible approach (3) drivers of
of the general population and operate in a social socially responsible behaviour (4) perceptions of
context where informal contractual obligations can organisational benefit from CSR (5) structural
be powerfully enforced
by the moral authority of the arrangements for CSR (6) barriers to involvement in
community. is to be ostracised, a form of
To default social, ethical and environmental issues.

enforceable trust (Flap et al., 2000), which acts as a

sharper deterrent than recourse to the law and by the

same token as a form of insurance, underwriting all The sample
deals and exchanges. For
Janjuha-Jivrav (2003),
much of this logic bears directly on Asian entre Given the normally low response rates to large scale
preneurs in Britain, whose communal solidarity postal and/or telephone surveys, it was decided to
based on common
identity has been further adopt a qualitative rather than quantitative approach
strengthened by "the shared experience of migration based on a more detailed investigation of a limited
and settlement in a hostile environment" (ibid, p. number of organisations (see e.g. Spence, 1999,
33). Significantly, however, she stresses that because p. 170). The intention was not to provide a statis
the
succeeding British-born generations of entre
tically valid analysis but to paint ameaningful picture
preneurs have not
experienced this migration trau of underlying attitudes and behaviour within
ma, their attitude to ethnic communal social capital respondent organisations. In total, 32 enterprises
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 205

were examined in the following towns and cities in a series of questions aimed at
eliciting information on
the U.K.: Birmingham, Blackburn, Bolton, Brad organisational attitudes, beliefs and assumptions
ford, Cardiff, Glasgow, Leeds, Leicester, London regarding CSR. Some questions utilised a Likert
and Manchester. All 32 firms participated in the ranking scale to indicate either relative importance
survey and 30 in the interview phase of the project. attached to or levels of agreement/disagreement
Locating firms who were willing to participate in with specific propositions; others called upon
the research was not a simple task. Apart from the respondents to consider which of a series of state
well-known problems of securing research access to ments most closely matched the views of their
SMEs in general, ethnic minority businesses can organisation. In Section C (20 questions) the focus
a to the researcher, was on issues related to actions and
present significant challenge organisational
given that many ethnic minority firms do not appear practices, with most questions based on yes/no
in business directories and are often not to be found responses.
on the databases of local business support institu The second stage of the project comprised of
tions. To overcome these difficulties, the research semi-structured interviews with owner?managers
team decided to seek access to a cross-section of and involved a more detailed discussion on how
Asian SMEs in different regions of the U.K. by social responsibility practised was
and understood
approaching influential Asian leaders and business within each firm and what influenced the organisa
groups who had
knowledge of local conditions. tion to become involved in CSR. The interviews
These gatekeepers were asked to assist in locating enabled to (1) provide their own
respondents
firms that exhibited behaviours consistent with the interpretations of CSR (2) explain in their own
notion of CSR. This approach is similar to that words their motivations for involvement (3) identify
adopted by Janjuha-Jivraj (2003) and is justifiable examples of different forms of community engage
given that the aim of the research was not to measure ment (4) suggest benefits which might accrue to the
the extent of CSR in ethnic small firms, but to gain organisation from investing in social capital via CSR.
an of how social responsibility was
understanding By splitting the information gathering process into
currently viewed and practised within Asian SMEs two separate parts, it was
possible
to cross-check
and to
explore owner-manager motivations. some of the information provided by the written
questionnaire and to explore in more detail those
Methodology employed areas of CSR and its associated social capital which
had meaning for Asian SMEs. In this way we were
The data collection process comprised two main able to add significant value to the project.
elements. First, each was asked to
respondent

complete a structured questionnaire which focused

on a range of issues identified in extant studies of Social desirability bias
CSR. In this phase of the research the overall aims
were: (1) to gain a general understanding of what the Given the nature and design of the research project,
sample firms felt about CSR (2) to elicit examples of it is appropriate to comment on the issue of social
some of the key forms it took (3) to
investigate how desirability bias. In essence this occurs when
it was within the The ques answer to conform to the
managed organisation. respondents questions
tionnaire was also used to information or norms
gather general expectations social of the researcher in
on the
respondent firms, number of order to portray themselves in a more favourable
including
employees, age of the enterprise, and its legal status. light (Chung and 2003; Fernandes
Monroe, and
The survey instrument comprised three main Randall, 1992; Randall and The
Fernandes, 1991).
sections. Section A (eight questions) was used to of such bias can impose significant limits
possibility
gather information on the respondent firms, on the scope, method and interpretation of empirical
including number of employees, age of the enter work ethical issues within
investigating organisations
prise and its legal status. In Section B (eight ques
(Chung and Monroe, 2003; Crane 1999).
tions) respondents were asked to list the key In designing our research we undertook a number
priorities of their organisation and then to respond to of steps to minimise the likelihood of a biased set of
 206Ian Worthington et al.

responses. First, in addition to using a postal ques TABLE I

tionnaire which avoided direct contact with size
Survey respondents by employee
respondents in the initial phase of the research and

guaranteeing personal and organisational anonymity, Number of employees Number of respondents

we took the precaution of asking survey questions in
terms of the organisation rather than the individual. 0-9 8

A similar technique was used by Rudelius and 10-49 13

in an to 50-99 5
Buchholz (1979) effort reduce social desir
100-199 3
ability bias.
Second, as previously indicated we
200-249 3
adopted a triangulated approach to data coUection
which aUowed us to use the interviews to "check"
survey on actions undertaken travel, construction, IT/Communication,
participants' responses transport,
within the local
community and to explore the retailing, printing and health care. Given the pre
meanings and motives they attached to organisational dominance of private sector organisations,
trading
involvement in CSR, thereby shedding light on their the vast majority were limited companies, most of
underlying ethical stance (Crane, 1999). Third, we which were
limited by shares. The sample also in
did not set up any hypotheses regarding the links cluded several partnerships and some organisations
which may exist between socially responsible with stated and overt social goals. None of the latter,
behaviour and the nature and character of Asian smaU however, would fully meet the Department of Trade
businesses. As stated above, our was and current definition of "social enter
approach purely Industry's

exploratory and this avoided

the problem of bias that prise" (DTI, 2002).
can affect an investigation of the relationship As might be expected within the Asian business
between variables in self-report studies (Fernandes community,
a
significant percentage of these or

and Randall, 1992; Randall and Fernandes, 1991). ganisations (around two-thirds) were family-owned
businesses.

Profile of respondent organisations

Findings and discussion
The research surveyed 32 organisations, aU of which
had fewer than 250 fuU-time employees. The Tlie survey results
numbers employed ranged from 2 to 240 with the
mean number of FTEs being 51. The breakdown of Organisational priorities
respondents by firm size is iUustrated in Table I. Of When invited to list the organisation's primary goals,
the total number of organisations questioned, the it is not surprising to find that 22 (69%) of the firms
table shows that eight
were "micro-businesses" questioned identified economic and commercial
(fewer 10 employees)
than and a further 13 were objectives as key priorities. Sustained growth and
"smaU businesses" (with fewer than 50 employees). profitability were the issues most frequently men
None of the respondents in the sample could be tioned in the completed questionnaires, together
officiaUy classified as a large business in employment with providing a good product/service to customers
terms. and generally meeting the needs and expectations of
The sample also covered businesses
of varying different stakeholder groups. Some respondents also
ages from different sectors
the economy. ofThe mentioned broader social aspirations for their or
youngest organisation questioned was just 2 years ganisations such as creating employment, serving the
old while the oldest had been operating for around community, looking after their employees and act
40 years. The mean average age of the sample was ing with integrity and professionalism.
15 years. In sectoral terms both manufacturing and
the service sector were
represented,
with respon Attitudes to social, ethical and environmental issues
dents drawn from a range of industries including Twenty-nine (91%) of the respondent organisations
textiles, metal plating, hotels, catering, leisure and stated that social, ethical and environmental issues
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 207

were important to the enterprise, with 13 (41%) What clearly emerges from Table II is a picture of
that such issues were in strong for attitudes and
claiming "very important" support socially responsible

organisational terms. When asked to indicate to actions and recognition (when prompted by the
what extent their organisation was socially, ethically question) that CSR can have distinct organisational
and environmentally responsible, 13 (41%) claimed benefits, both in resource terms and in building
"a great deal", irrespective
of the size, age, sector, stakeholder relationships, advantages that might help
primary purpose or legal status of the enterprise. to
leverage commercial gain. The one area where

That said, many of the individuals questioned were respondents held mixed views was with
regard to the
generally unable to identify the key issues of CSR relative importance of social and economic goals,
which influenced the organisation's behaviour, with the numbers fairly evenly split between those
although
some reference was made to
making
a who thought CSR more important than profit,
contribution to the community and to environ those who believed the opposite and those who felt
mental concerns actions. In effect, the initial
and neither one
thing
nor the other.

evidence suggests that the idea of social responsibility

tends to be seen in very general and unspecific terms Organisational actions and practices
within many Asian businesses, an issue explored in In addition to surveying attitudes, beliefs and
more detail during the interview phase of the assumptions, the questionnaire (part C)
interrogated
project. respondents on the types of socially responsible
With regards to specific attitudes and beliefs, behaviour in which their organisations engaged and
the responses to the initial questions in part B of the how this behaviour was reflected in internal systems,
survey indicate varying levels of support for the processes and procedures.

following propositions: Table III shows

the findings of the questionnaire
with regard to the types of organisational involve
profit is equally important to social, ethical ment that could help to develop social capital for the
and environmental responsibility (20 firms or enterprise. The data suggest that respondents had
active across a wide
63%) been range of social, ethical and

the benefits of
responsibilitysocial either environmental areas, with donations to causes/local

outweigh (13 firms or 41%) or are equal to charities, sponsorship for local events, support for
the costs over time (11 firms or 34%) local schools and colleges, environmental initiatives
CSR can create value for the organisation and staff related
issues particularly prominent. The
(20 firms or 63%). picture that emerges from the survey (and which was

subsequently confirmed in the interviews) is one of

Taken together these preliminary responses suggest substantial involvement in local causes, events and
that within the sample Asian businesses, the generally charities, with some
organisations devoting time and

positive orientation towards social responsibility effort to community activities as well as donations in
exists
alongside
a more
pragmatic
concern with cash, goods and/or equipment. The fact that such
economic and commercial imperatives.
Moreover engagement occurred not just within but beyond the
while amajority of respondents evidently recognised local ethnic community clearly provided the enter
that CSR could help to create organisational prise with opportunities to create and/or sustain
advantage, many firms initially appeared unclear as both "bonding" and "bridging" social capital (for a
to what might constitute socially responsible discussion see e.g. Adler and Kwon, 2002; Putnam,
behaviour. 2000; Werner and Spence, 2004).
To obtain amore detailed insight into underlying Withregard to organisational practices for man
attitudes, beliefs and assumptions, respondents were aging CSR, 17 firms (53%) stated that their social,
subsequently invited to indicate the extent to which ethical and environmental objectives were reflected
they agreed or disagreed with a series of proposi in their mission statements, while a smaller number

tions, using a five point Likert scale. The summary claimed that they were also referred to in other
data from this part of the questionnaire are shown in documents (e.g. vision statements, business plans,
Table II below. annual reports or policy papers). Discussion of issues
 Ian et al.
Worthington

TABLE II

Respondent attitudes, beliefs and assumptions

Strongly agree/ Neither agree Tend to disagree/

tend to agree nor
disagree strongly disagree

should pay attention to 27 0

Organisations significant
their social, ethical and environmental respon
sibilities
My organisation pursues responsible business 30 0

practices
Being sociaUy, ethicaUy and environmentaUy 24 0
is linked to success
responsible organisational

improves in organisa- 24 1
Employee performance
tions which are and environ
sociaUy, ethicaUy

mentaUy responsible
Social, ethical and environmental 12 10
responsib?ity
ismore important than pursuing economic goals

(e.g. profit/growth)
Organisations should integrate social, ethical and 25
environmental into their core or
responsibility
ganisational strategies

Organisations should become involved with 29 1

causes
community
Public attitudes to an are influenced 25 4
organisation
its social, ethical and environmental behav
by
iour

An customers are 18 11
organisation's (or clients)
influenced by its social, ethical and environ

mental behaviour

Social responsib?ity wiU become increasingly 23

to my over the next
important organisation
5 years

Note: N=32. do not as some declined to answer some

Responses always taUy respondents questions.

of CSR was also evidently undertaken at Board level or goals regarding social, ethical and environmental
in over half of the respondent organisations (18 firms performance and only two (6%) claimed to have
or 59%). Only three firms (9%), however, said that made use of performance indicators in these areas,

they had established a specialist committee or other although neither of the

latter provided examples
body to deal specifically with CSR, the others when invited to do so by the question.

choosing instead to designate an individual within This relative reluctance to publicise the firm's
the organisation to deal with the various areas of socially responsible behaviour in a formal manner
social, ethical and environmental concern. needs to be set in the context of each organisation's
The survey responses suggest that such concerns network of business and social relationships. As far
were integrated to some degree into the organisa as external involvement was concerned, 15

tion's daily activities and into management training respondents (47%) claimed that their firms had
programmes, with a few firms indicating that they collaborated with other organisations on social,
had adopted guideline policies and/or practices on ethical and/or environmental issues, while 25 (78%)
CSR. That said, only six (19%) of the organisations indicated that they had consulted to some degree

questioned indicated that they had set specific targets with external bodies or stakeholders in these areas,
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 209

TABLE III

Organisational involvement with CSR

Type of organisational involvement Yes No

Donations to causes 25 4
community
Donations to charities 26 3
of events 21 6
Sponsorship community (e.g. sport)

Supporting the Arts 12 14

Work with local schools, universities 24 5
coUeges,
involvement with causes 19 7
Supporting employee community
involvement with causes 19 8
Supporting employer community

Lobbying for a particular cause 12 13

Cause-related linked to charitable causes) 13 14

marketing (e.g. products

Encouraging skill development among employees 26 2

Investing in deprived areas 12 15

Engaging people traditionaUy excluded from the labour market (e.g. disabled, homeless) 10 15

Taking responsibility for the health and weU-being of staff 27 1

Schemes to reduce environmental 22 5
impact (e.g. recycling)
Monitoring environmental impact 11 13
Ethical purchasing 20 8
Ethical investment 16 10
social, ethical or environmental other 6 19
Benchmarking performance against organisations
best on social, ethical or environmental with other 16 8
Sharing practice responsibility organisations

Supplier diversity initiatives 10 14

Note: N=2>2. Totals do not answers

always taUy because of "don't know" and/or because respondents sometimes declined
to answer.

albeit that for two-fifths

of the latter (31% of the phase of the project that relate specifically to the
whole sample) the degree of consultation was said notion of social capital.
to be "very limited". Nevertheless, given the nat
ure of respondent CSR activities indicated by the
survey, together with even a modicum of collab The importance of social responsibility
oration and consultation with external parties, it
seems reasonable to conclude that the involvement The interview phase of the project provided con
of individual Asian organisations in social, ethical firmatory evidence that behaving in a socially
and environmental matters would not go unrec was an consideration for
responsible way important

ognised in the local community. the majority of respondent organisations. Given the
nature of the sample, it was not surprising to find
that this positive orientation towards CSR was
The interview results tempered by a significant degree of pragmatism. For

example, a number of interviewees remarked that

As previously indicated
provided the interviews an socially responsible behaviour tended to become

opportunity to add value to the information derived more important once the organisation had achieved
from the questionnaires and to explore in more its commercial and economic goals and that the latter
detail some key areas associated with the idea of might be seen as the springboard from which action
CSR. As will be evident from the analysis below, in the wider community could be launched. As one
some important findings have emerged from this respondent put it:
 210Ian Worthington et al.

"At this stage it is not the number one priority but views. One interviewee spoke of social responsibility
it will come to a stage when it will become as having both an "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" side:
number one... You can start to think about social

is very important, without "The intrinsic side is about your employees, cus
responsibility; profit
that you cannot be socially responsible." tomers, investors and .... On the
yourselves

(Scottish Hotel and Property Company) extrinsic side we

are trying to set up a fund by
"
ourselves, our business should support the charity.
This idea of progression from commercial success to
(Scottish Hotel and Property Company)
more socially responsible behaviour was not shared
by all respondents. For some, economic and social In a similar vein another observed that being socially
were seen as and responsible was about the way you do business as an
goals complementary mutually
One observer noted that: and, more as a member
reinforcing. employer, supplier broadly,
of the local community.
"social responsibility was part of doing business." Whether defined as action in the
narrowly
(Graphic Design Business, Manchester)
community or more broadly as responsibility towards
This view was
echoed by another respondent who a variety of internal and external stakeholders, CSR
argued that changes in the business environment had was seen by the vast majority of interviewees as a form
made CSR equally important to a firm's commercial of moral duty towards others, the "drivers" of which
objectives and that in order to prosper organisations: are discussed below. As the survey data indicates and
"... needed to be seen to be doing CSR." the interviews confirm, respondent organisations
(Property Company, Doncaster) fulfilled their social obligations by engaging in a
variety of activities and commitments which provided
The meaning of corporate social responsibility opportunities for developing organisational em
beddedness and its associated social capital.
Key
The questionnaire had not sought to offer a defini examples included charitable work (in the U.K. and
tion of CSR, although it was possible from the data overseas), donations to local organisations in both
to
gain
an
understanding of how respondents cash and kind, initiatives with local schools, spon
implicitly understood the concept. In the interview sorship of local events, support for employees and
phase participants were asked directly for their views schemes to
improve environmental performance.
as to the meaning of the term. to these voluntary
In addition and philanthropic
The evidence shows that for the majority of activities, the interviews also confirmed that Asian
organisations questioned CSR was essentially about: small business owners were involved in a variety of
CSR-related social and business relationships both
"... putting back into the
something community."
within and beyond the immediate community.
(Leisure Group, Scotland)
Some respondents, for instance, occupied formal
One interviewee noted that being socially respon roles in various small and/or ethnic business-related
sible meant: or
organisations programmes Business
including
?
"... back to the community
Link, the local Chamber of Commerce, the Asian
giving doing
to better where you live." Business Federation, the Ethnic Business Support
something
(Financial Services Company, Wales) Programme and the Ethnic Economic Development
Committee. Others served in capacities which
Another, that it was concerned with:
"... responsibility to your fellow human beings spanned a range of interests from education and
environment on the one hand
(e.g. The Prince's
and to the people who are around you; to your
Trust, The Islamic Education Trust, Governor of the
employees and to see what you can put back in to
University of Wales, Groundwork) to religion and
help progress ..."
people on the other
justice (e.g. Inter-Faith Council, Justice
(Scottish Coach Operator)
of the Peace). Our claim is not that owner?managers

This idea that CSR had both an internal and an deliberately engaged in such forms of CSR to build

external in a number of the inter both bonding and bridging social capital, but that
aspect emerged
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 211

this was a likely outcome of their actions, even if it reference to religious influence. "Doing your duty to
was serendipitous (Maskell, 2001). the community and workers" is one rather striking

explanation, presented as a straightforward matter of

secular For these in a
morality. respondents acting
Drivers of CSR was linked to notions of
socially responsible way
"personal satisfaction", "personal values", "being
A key finding to emerge from the interviews is that of the a
part community", "building reputation",
this idea of duty was rooted in the personal attitudes or "family influence". In short, CSR
"obligation"
and values of the individual directing the organisa was a matter of individual choice and personal
tions that participated in the research project. For a and one which offered for
morality opportunities
significant number of interviewees (eight or 27%), building links and developing mutual trust relation
this key internal driver was based predominantly on within the local community.
ships
religious belief. The following quotations are typical
"...we live in a and I'm a
examples of the responses by participants when in community community
member. It gives us recognition and we find our
vited to explain why they had acted in a socially
workforce from the community."
responsible way:
(Metal Plating Company, Birmingham)
"I thinkthat everyone has got an ethical and
"We do a lot of work with...an ethnic minority
moralistic duty to their community. There's more
a (sports) team. Obviously, because I sponsor them
to life than making money; call it religious and
then I am able to increase my network; you can go
spiritualistic urge. I think it comes into the person
to businesses and say can you some money in."
who is at the put
top."
(Restaurant Group, South Wales)
(Hotel and Property Company, Scotland)

"It is a personal thing which is to do with the

"At the end the day you have got to give
of
I come from."
to get something back; if you make a
community
something
(Internet Solutions company, Blackburn).
mistake you pay for the penalty."
(Communications Company, Wales) as were
As far external influences concerned, these

"In my faith it is a responsibility to others rather appear to have had only very limited impact in shaping
than You have to see under you;
organisational attitudes and behaviour regarding so
yourself. people
we are so we to cial, ethical and environmental issues. Thus, whilst a
the ones, have contribute
lucky
to people who have not got what we have got." few observers claimed that government legislation and
had had some influence in areas such as
(Financial Services Company, Wales) regulation
waste disposal and packaging, most respondents felt
if from the environment
With regard to the motivations for engaging in little, any, pressure regulatory
activities which can help to develop individual and other than compliance. Equally, there appeared to be
social capital, the above quotes point no significant supply chain influences nor other
organisational
to a distinctive ethnic difference: namely that the stakeholder demands from customers, investors or

ethical beliefs and behaviour of some Asian entre community groups. This relative lack of external
preneurs appear to be shaped to a significant drivers can be explained in part by the size of the
degree
by the individual's prior philosophical and religious enterprises in the sample.
affinities (Chatterjee and Pearson, 2003). Where
true, it could be argued that such faith-based com Perceptions of benefit
mitments are likely to prove stronger and deeper
than more secular rationalisations, given that deities The survey data had revealed that respondents saw
are not
normally open to
negotiation. CSR as conferring benefits on the organisation both
That
said, it isworth noting that many of the other on the demand and supply side (e.g.
employee-linked
respondents in the case study sample tended to considerations). The interviews provided an oppor
rationalise their CSR efforts without any direct tunity to examine this perception in more detail and
 212Ian Worthington et al.

to seek concrete evidence of organisational gain. It gained a better, more satisfied and more loyal
should be stressed that achieving commercial benefits workforce as a result of investing in social capital
increased revenue and/or was not a via CSR was a recurrent theme in the interviews.
(e.g. profits) pre

requisite to socially responsible behaviour, rather it

was a potential and often intangible outcome of a "In our business our
employees
are
everything,
firm's actions. As one it: the reason that we are here is because of our
respondent put

employees. So we going are back now and

"...it is all about in the market them and looking after them more and
perceptions place. retraining
Much of business is 'word of mouth'." more. There is social responsibility."
definitely
(Graphic Design Business, Manchester) (Hotel and Property Company, Scotland)

As far as the demand side was views as to

concerned, "My staff are very loyal, they have been working
the benefits of CSR were mixed. While some for me for a very long time. They could have gone
respondents felt that there was little, if any, bottom towork somewhere else for a lot of money but they
line impact from socially responsible behaviour, oth work for me because ofthat social responsibility."
ers talked about gaining
access to markets and/or in (Financial Services Company, Wales)
creased sales through improved public relations,
enhanced and com "We are very fortunate, many of our staff have
company reputation generating
In general itwould be fair to say that been with us for well over two decades. They
munity goodwill.
as far as the latter position was concerned, perceptions don't want to go
anywhere else and that's because

we are flexible in terms of giving leave at short

of organisational gain often tended to be impression
istic and relatively vague and were more notice, and various other helpful sorts of initia
probably
one respondent: tives that we have been involved with in terms of
aspirational than realistic. To quote
allowing them to have small loans from us from
"It won't affect the bottom line positively or time to time with no or low interest."
negatively...I don't think that it's a benefit that is (Furniture and Property Business Wales).
quantifiable."
When asked to elaborate on how the idea of social
(Scottish Coach Operator)
responsibility is related to the treatment of staff, the
In this instance, Asian entrepreneurs appear to examples given by respondents generally mirrored
have been like other business owners, with those found in the small firm community as a whole
acting
CSR seen in entirely secular, non-ethnic terms as (see e.g. Holliday, 1995) and included payment of
a means of burnishing the firm's image in the local funeral expenses, help in cash or kind with wedding
in the that this might result in ceremonies, time off for family problems without a
community hope
some form of long term commercial gain. There reduction in pay, cheap or zero interest loans, help
is, of course, no necessary contradiction here since with educational expenses and so on. Many
a of motivational strands can be interwoven when demonstrated a
variety employers questioned pater
in every individual case, all serving to nalistic attitude to their staff that went well beyond
together
reinforce one another in the direction of CSR. In mere
compliance with current
employment regula
case, the benefits of enhanced are tions. While such behaviour promised to create re
any image
generally seen
in vague, unquantifiable terms. ciprocal obligations in the workforce and engender
in the wider we do not be
With regard to supply side benefits, attitudes goodwill community,
and perceptions tended to be far more lieve that Asian owner-managers were deliberately
significant
to instrumental in this regard. Rather our view is that
interviewees. Many respondents spoke of the
on staff of engaging in their actions were motivated by personal and/or
positive impact socially
actions, with regular references made religious and/or cultural values rather than by
responsible
to the increased health and happiness of the commercial gain, even if this ultimately proved to be
workforce from different forms of em a consequence of their behaviour (e.g. via reduced
resulting
ployer support. This idea that the organisation transactions costs).
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 213

Organising for CSR Barriers to involvement in social, ethical and environmental

initiatives

Analysis of the survey data had indicated that there

was little attempt by the respondent organisations to The interviews revealed that the primary barriers to
engage in socially responsible behaviour in a formal involvement in CSR were those traditionally
and structured manner. This was confirmed by the associated with the size of the organisation, namely
case interviews. as practiced
CSR, in the sample time, resources and business priorities.
For those

enterprises was frequently ad hoc, informal and reac involved in formal community roles, the commit
tive, although some businesses had built up regular ment of personal
time and expense
was often sub

patterns of support for various charities, local causes stantial, with little, if any, tangible return for the
and organisations (e.g. sports clubs) and some indi organisation. For more
recently established enter

viduals had committed specific amounts of time to prises, business survival and growth understandably
roles in the local community (see above). were the key organisational goals.
significant
This informality was also reflected in internal
structures for managing social, ethical and environ

mental responsibility. In general initiatives on CSR Summary and discussion

came from the top of the organisation and were
often implemented on an individual basis by senior This qualitative, empirical study of Asian owned
managers, with little, if any, recourse to other and/or managed smaU firms has provided a valuable

employees. If any discussion took place, this tended insight into the ethical attitudes, behaviour and
to be at board level (orwith partners) and there were motivations of an important but largely neglected
very few attempts to create a formal structure through element of the business community (Ede et al.,
which to manage CSR decisions, other than those 2000). Using the lens of social capital theory, the
associated with accreditation to the various external research has revealed that social responsibility is re
standards (e.g. Investors in People; the environ garded as an important business issue within the
mental management standard ISO 14001). U.K. Asian small business community, irrespective
With regard to performance measurement and of the size, age, sector, primary purpose or location

reporting, the picture was essentially the same, with of the enterprise. VirtuaUy aU the organisations
no real evidence of any attempt to set specific goals questioned a positive commitment
demonstrated to
or
targets for social, ethical or environmental per socially responsible behaviour, engaged in a variety
formance nor to establish performance indicators for of sociaUy responsible actions and did so notwith
measuring
outcomes. As for reporting
on the orga standing any benefits that such actions might bring
nisation's CSR activities, this was done largely on an to the organisation. Much of this activity tended to
informal, word of mouth basis both internally and be low key and informal, with firms quietly and
externally via the various
organisational networks. unobtrusively a
engaged in variety of actions in the
No audit existed of CSR within the respondent local community and beyond that provided oppor
enterprises. tunities for creating and/or sustaining both bridging
Given the size of the sample organisations and the and bonding social capital for the organisation.
stated predispositions of interviewees, none of these The evidence suggests that CSR is seen

findings is surprising. As indicated above, involve predominantly as a "social" imperative, exemplified

ment in socially responsible behaviour in the sample by the view that social responsibility was concerned
organisations behaviour was largely driven by the with "giving something back to the local commu
personal, religious, cultural and philanthropic values nity" by supporting local individuals, causes and
and beliefs of owners and senior managers, and was
organisations and by helping employees to solve

accordingly often
uncoordinated, unplanned and their personal and emotional problems. A large part
non-strategic in approach. In this respect, Asian of the activity in this latter area reflected a pater
small firms in the U.K. appear to practice CSR very nalistic and moraUy based approach by employers to
much in line with their counterparts in the wider the weU-being and happiness of their staff. Such an
small business community (see below). approach had the concomitant effect of engendering
 214Ian Worthington et al.

employee loyalty and commitment, thereby creating responsible manner. Though there is no direct evi
value for the organisation in the longer term. dence from the present survey, it seems unlikely that
While there was recognition that behaving in a religious faith would be cited by many non-Asian
socially responsible manner could provide both de British small firms as a motivation for CSR.2
mand and supply side benefits, this does not appear
to have been a significant factor in explaining why
the sample firms invested in social capital via CSR. Limitations and areas for further research
Nor could we find any substantial evidence that their
behaviour was shaped by external influences or was Small-scale, cross-sectional and exploratory studies

designed to be strategic (see e.g. Burke and Logsdon, have their limitations which we readily acknowl
1996; Lantos, 2001). Organisational and individual edge. Apart from issues of sample size and time
involvement in social, ethical or environmental frame, the focus of this study on smaU firm owners
initiatives appears to have been relatively ad hoc and and/or managers inevitably circumscribes our
driven predominantly by the personal attitudes, knowledge and understanding of the nature and
values and beliefs of the individuals owning and/or extent of CSR as practised within the Asian smaU
managing the respondent organisations. These atti business community. In this context we believe that
tudinal predispositions frequentlywere shaped in research which investigates the reservoir of social
turn by religious, cultural and/or moral influences capital tied up in employee/manager CSR-based
within the individual's environment. relationships might prove particularly informative,
How can we interpret the attitudes and actions of not least in shedding further light on the notion of
small Asian firms to the social responsibility agenda? organisational embeddedness, including issues of
On the one hand it can be argued that the trust, loyalty and mutual obligation.
evidence presented here indicates that the behaviour As Spence et al. (2003) have pointed out, reli
and predispositions of the respondent organisations gious and ethnic groups are also an area for future
mirror those of the U.K. small business community research and we would encourage more
investiga

generally, as indicated by recent research into CSR tions of CSR in other ethnic business communities
and smaller enterprises (BCC, 2000; BITC et al., in the U.K. and beyond,
in order to enhance our

2002). What the extant literature shows is that U.K. understanding of small firm engagement with the
small firms largely express a positive attitude towards social responsibility agenda. It would be interesting
the idea of social responsibility and many appear to to know, for example,
what differences, if any, ex

engage in a variety of actions in the local community isted in the interpretation and practice of CSR be
of the type revealed by this study. For the most part tween different ethnic business communities and
this activity takes place on an ad hoc, informal and how far the motivations for engagement revealed by
unstructured basis and is predominantly driven by this study were culturally distinctive both nationally
the philanthropic wishes of the owners and senior and cross-nationally. With respect to the latter issue,
managers rather than by
an
attempt to
leverage
or more work on the question of the link between
ganisational gain. Such engagement is normally CSR and perceptions of organisational advantage
characterised as "giving back to the local commu would be both timely and instructive, given gov
nity", underlining the moral basis of organisational ernmental attempts to spread the message that "it
decisions and responses. pays to be good" (see e.g. Irwin, 2002).
On the other hand it seems reasonable to argue Finally, the role played by civic engagement in
that what is perhaps distinctive about some of the building bridging social capital between the Asian
small firms in this sample is that their attitudes and small business sector and the wider community is
behaviour a religious rather than a secular basis
have worthy of further clarification. The present study has
that is rooted in the ethnic and cultural background indicated that in addition to engagement with
of individual entrepreneurs. As the analysis above has individuals and groups from their own ethnic
demonstrated, for a significant number of the case community,
some Asian small firm owner-managers
had a high priority and considerable time and effort to voluntary
study firms religious motives devoted

underpinned the notion of acting in a socially civic duties that benefited local citizens generaUy.
 Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility 215

While there is no firm evidence from the research to the Sociology of Education (Greenwood, New York), pp.

suggest that the latter

type of involvement was 241-258.

motivated considerations of "bridge building", Bourdieu, P.: 1993, Sociology in Question (Sage, London)
by
L. and J. M. 'How
off-the record remarks by a number of interviewees Burke, Logsdon: 1996, Corporate
Socialresponsibility Pays Off, Long Range Planning
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down and
29(4), 405-502.
"breaking barriers", "reducing racism",
Business Community Connections (BCC): 2000, Con
"achieving greater integration". Whether this is
necting SMEs with theCommunity: A Research Report on
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the Involvement of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
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approach
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CSR. See S.: 'Social in the Creation of
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