Chapter -1

Introduction
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space
and may be able to penetrate various materials. Light, Radio and
Microwaves are types of radiation that are called non-ionizing. The kind
of radiation discussed in this document is called ionizing radiation
because it can produce charged particles (ions) in matter.
Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable atoms. Unstable atoms differ
from stable atoms because unstable atoms have an excess of energy or
mass or both. Radiation can also be produced by high voltage devices
(e.g. x-rays machines).
Unstable are said to be radioactive. In order to reach stability, these
atoms give off, or emit, the excess energy or mass. The emissions are
called radiation. The kind of radiation is electromagnetic (like light) and
particulate (i.e. mass given off with the energy of motion). Gamma
radiation and x-rays come from the electron part of the atom. Beta and
alpha radiation are examples of particulate radiation.
Interestingly, there is a “background” of natural radiation everywhere in
our environment. It comes from space (i.e. cosmic rays) and from
naturally occurring radioactive material contained in the earth and in the
living things.
Radioactivity:
Baquerrel in 1896 discovered that certain substances emit radiation
naturally.
These were of 3 types hitherto not known before. He gave them the
names of α, β, γ radiation according to their behavior in the magnetic
field.
Later on, it was discovered that they belong to series decay of Uranium,
Thorium, Actinium and Neptuman.
What causes radioactivity:
The cause of radioactivity is excess /deficiency of neutrons over the
protons than required for stability e.g. fig 1.1

N=Z
N

Z
A nucleus at A will decay by β- and that at B will decay at β+/EC in
order to reach the line of stability in one or more steps.

How much Radioactive Material is present?

The size or weight of a quantity of material does not indicate how much
radioactivity is present. A large quantity of material cans contain a very
small amount of radioactivity, or a very small amount of material can
have a lot of radioactivity.
For example uranium-238, with a 4.5 billion year half-life, has only
0.00015 curies of activity per pound, while cobalt- 60, with a 5.3 half-
life, has nearly 513,000 curies of activity per pound. This “specific
activity” or curies per unit mass, of a radioisotope depends on the unique
radioactive atoms to decay.
In the United States, the amount of radioactivity present is traditionally
determined by estimating the number of curies (Ci) present. The more
curies present, the greater amount of radioactivity and emitted radiation.
Common fractions of the curie are the milli curie (1 mCi=1/1,000Ci) and
the micro curie (1 μCi=1/1,000,000 Ci). In terms of transformation per
unit time, 1 μCi=2,000,000dmp (decays per minute).
The SI system uses the unit of becquerel (Bq) as its of radioactivity. One
curie is 37 billion Bq. Since the Bq represents such a small amount, one
is likely to see a prefix noting large multiplier used with the Bq as
follow:

• 37 GBq=37 billion Bq = 1 curie

• 1 MBq= 1 million Bq = ~27 microcuries

• 1 GBq= 1 billion Bq =~27 millicuries

• 1 TBq= 1 trillion Bq =~27 curies

Types of radiation:
Alpha radiation
Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus
emits an alpha particle, and thereby transforms (or decays) into an atom
with mass number 4 less and atomic no. 2 less. Parent atom decays into
a lighter particle. An example of this is a uranium-238 atom decaying
into a thorium-234 atom and an alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus,
i.e.2protons and 2 neutrons. An alpha particle is the same as a helium-4
nucleus, and both mass no. and atomic no. are the same.
The energy of emitted α-particles depends on the specific atom and its
no. of neutrons, or in other words in isotope, the energy of α-particles
emitted is stable.
Alpha decay:
Two protons and two neutrons combine to form an alpha particle i.e the
nucleus of helium4 2He is in heavy nuclei with z>83 this process of decay
is quite common. These nuclei are grouped as Actinides. In alpha decay
A a-4
Z X YZ-2

Beta radiation
Atoms emit beta particles through a process known as beta decay. Beta
decay occurs when an atom has either too many protons or neutrons I its
nucleus. Two types of beta decay can occur. One type (+-β decay)
releases a positively charged beta particle called a positron, and a
neutrino; the other type (negative beta decay) releases a negatively
charged beta particle called an electron and an antineutrino. The neutrino
and the antineutrino are high energy elementary particles little or no
mass and are released in order to conserve energy during the decay
process. Negative beta decay is far more common than positive beta
decay.
This form of radioactive decay was discovered by Rutherford in 1899,
although the neutrino was not observed until the 1960s. Beta particles
have all the characteristics of electrons. At the time of their emission,
they travel at nearly the speed of light. A typical .5 MeV particle will
travel about ten feet through the air, and can be stopped by 1-2 inches of
wood.
One example of β decay occurs in C-14 which consists of 6 protons and
neutrons. This isotope is important in determining the age of
archaeological and geological sample and is commonly referred to as
carbon dating. Via β decay, a neutron in C-14 becomes proton and
electron, with an antineutrino being emitted as well. As a result, the
isotope gains a proton, loses a neutron, and becomes N-14 with 7
protons and 7 neutrons.
Cases like these, where the energy of the emitted particle can be widely
spread, is called a continuous spectrum, and the fact this occurred with β
radiation confused scientists for years. In order to explain this
phenomenon, the famous physicist Wolfgang Pauli theorized that
another particle must be released in β decay, two particles were emitted,
the β particle (electron or positron) and the neutrino or antineutrino.
Beta Decay:
It was established that when neutron changes onto proton the reaction
goes as:
n p+e-+ υ
A proton would convert into n as:
p n+ e-+υ
Similarly when a proton captures an electron in EC:
P+ e- n+ β+ υ
All these processes occur inside the nucleus.

Gamma Radiation
 γ rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, or light rays, emitted at a
frequency greater than that of the visible spectrum. γ radiation is an
offspring of α or β decay when the nucleus is left in an excited state.
This mode of radiation releases the unit of light, or photon, at very
energies, requiring a dense material like lead to shield from it.
Gamma rays are type of electromagnetic radiation that results from a
redistribution of electric charge within a nucleus. Gamma rays are
essentially very energetic X rays; the distinction between the two is not
based on their intrinsic nature but rather o their origins. X rays emitted
during atomic processes involving energetic electrons. Gamma radiation
is emitted by excited nuclei or other processes involving subatomic
particles; it often accompanies alpha or beta radiation, as a nucleus
emitting those particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state.

Characteristics of Radiation
The radiation one typically encounters is one of four types:
Alpha radiation
Beta radiation
Gamma radiation
X radiation
Neuron radiation is also encountered in nuclear power plants and high
altitude flight and is emitted from industrial radioactive sources.

• Alpha radiation
Alpha radiation is a heavy, short –range particle and is actually an
ejected helium nucleus.
Characteristics of alpha radiation are as follow:
1. Most alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human skin.
2. Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the materials
are inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through open wounds.
3. A variety of instruments has been designed to measure alpha
radiation. Special training in the use of these instruments is
essential for making accurate measurements.
4. A thin window Geiger-Mueller (GM) probe can detect the
presence of alpha radiation.
5. Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation through even a thin layer
of water, dust, paper, or other material, because alpha radiation is
not penetrating.
6. Alpha radiation travels only a short distance ( a few inches ) in air,
but is not an external hazard.
7. Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate clothing.
Example of alpha emitters: Radium, Radon, Uranium, Thorium.
• Beta Radiation
Beta radiation is a light, short-range particle, and is actually an ejected
electron.
Characteristics of beta radiation are as follow:
1. Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and is moderately
penetrating.
2. Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the “germinate layer”,
where new skin cells are produced. If high level of beta-emitting
 contaminants is allowed to remain on the skin for a prolonged
period of time, they may cause skin injury.
3. Beta-emitting contaminants may be harmful if deposited internally.
4. Most beta emitters can be detected with a survey instruments and a
thin- window G-M probe (e.g. “pancake” type). Some beta emitters
however produce very low-energy, poorly penetrating radiation
that may be difficult or impossible to detect. Examples of these
difficult- to- detect beta emitters are hydrogen-3(tritium), carbon-
14, and sulfur-35.
5. Clothing provides some protection against Beta radiation.
Examples of some pure beta emitters: strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium,
and sulfur-35.
• Gamma and X Radiation
Gamma and X Radiation are highly penetrating electromagnetic
radiation.
Characteristics of these radiations are as follow:
1. Gamma and X Radiation are able to travel many feet in air and
many inches in human tissue. They readily penetrate most
materials and are sometimes called “penetrating” radiation.
2. X rays are like gamma rays. X rays, too, are penetrating radiation.
Sealed radioactive sources and machines that emit gamma
radiation and X rays respectively constitute mainly an external
hazard to humans.
3. Gamma radiation and x rays are electromagnetic radiation like
visible light, radio waves, and ultra violet light. These
 electromagnetic radiations differ only in the amount of energy they
have. Gamma rays and x rays are the most energetic of these.
4. Dense materials are needed for shielding from gamma radiation.
Clothing provides light shielding from penetrating radiation, but
will prevent contamination of the skin by emitting materials.
5. Gamma Radiation is easily detected by survey meters with a
sodium iodide detector probe.
6. Gamma and X rays frequently accompany the emission of alpha
and beta radiation during radioactive decay.
Examples of some gamma emitters: iodine-131, cesium-137, cobalt-60,
radium-226 and technetium-99m.
Radioactive Decay Law
Radioactive Rutherford and soddy found that the rate of disintegration is
independent of physical and chemical conditions and introduced
radioactive law of disintegration.
Let No be the no of radioactive aborns which are present initially and N
be the number of atoms at given time t.
Let dN be the number of atoms undergoing disintegration in a small
internal of time dt.
The rate of disintegration is

Where λ is a costant known that N decreases with increase in time.

=n can be written as

Integrating,
logeN=- λt+C……………2
C ia constant of integration
At t=0, N=No
loge No=C
put in =2
logeN=- λt+ loge No
loge N/ No
3 show that the number of atoms of a radioactive substances decreases
exponentially with increase in time.
Hence, we get N= No……………….which is known as Radioactive equation.
Where t=…………….
Therefore λ reciprocal of the time in which the activity reduces to
……….times the original activity and is called mean lifetime c.
Radioactivity Glossary
Radioactivity:
It is the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. So, it is the
process whereby unstable atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic
particles.
Half life:
The half life is related to the decay costant in this way.
t1/2=ln2/ λ=Xt1/2=ln2=0.693
this type of relation shows that highly radioactive substances are quickly
spent.
Mean life:
It includes the symbol t, which shows the average lifetime of
radioactive particles.
Decay constant:
The symbol λ is used as decay constant which is the inverse if the mean
lifetime.
Radioactive gases:
The radioactive gases are an external hazard only. The body does not
react chemically with them and so, they are not taken up.
Radon 222:
Rn is a symbol of radon. 222Rn is more stable isotope which is decay
product of 226 Ra, having half life of 3.8 days.
Thoron:
The 220 Rn isotopes is a natural decay product of most stable thorium
isotope (232Th) named Thoron, half life 55.6 seconds.
Properties of Radon:
Radon is colorless, odorless, tasteless, naturally occurring radioactive
noble gas that is formed from decay of radium.
 *******************

Chapter-2
Radon sources, Properties and Harmful Effects
Sources of Radon:
Radon exists as two is to per 222Rn and 220Rn. The former is daughter
of parent of parent Radium -226 a long lived isotope in the decay chain
of uranium -238. The latter is direct descendent of Radium -224 which
belongs to the thorium -232 as head of the chain known as Thorium
series. Both Uranium -238 and Thorium -232 are very long lived with
half lives in billions of years. Therefore Radon -222 and Radon -220 are
present where-ever Uranium and Thorium are present. The main sources
of these elements are rock from which earth’s crust and soil has
developed.
Indirectly all waters, crust and soils and vegetation possesses these
elements in varying degrees. So all the samples of food items, water, soil
and even air will show radioactivity due to Uranium, Thorium, Radium
and Radon, how so ever small it may be.
Being gases, radon can come out from rock and underground soil
through leaks and pores. This phenomenon is called Radon Emanation.
It is well known thus that Emanation is the only process through which
Radon enters the atmosphere. All buildings, floors, bricks or mud houses
emit Radon into the atmosphere continuously due to the presence of
Uranium and Thorium in them.
However certain areas rich in these elements have higher concentrations
of 222Rn and 220Rn than others. This fact is shown in Table 2.4 for
surface soils, sands and coals dug from underground.

Properties of Radon:
A. Radon is a gas which exists in two isotope forms.
B. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless and is soluble in water.
C. It is heaviest gaseous substance with mass number A=222 & 220,
the latter being called Thoron.
D. Radon-222 is formed from long-lived Radon -226 with half life
T½ = days, and decays to Polonium-218 with T½=3.18 days.
Thoron or Radon -220 is formed from Radium-224 with T½=
and decays to Polonium-216 with T½=
E. Their daughter products are solid and further decay through α or
β emission through a chain of disintegrations ultimately to Lead
Pb or Pb.
F. For 222Rn and 220Rn there are three beta emitters in their
respective chains.
 G. In the DS BC method whose results we shall be considering for
our work of this thesis. We will come across beta particles due to
six beta emitters.
H. As a Geiger-Mueller detector detects beta particles without
discrimination or peak formation due to individual source beta
particles, the analysis is done using Bateman equations suitable
for successive radioactive decays in order to find the contribution
of each source in the two series.
I. From these contributions the instant values of Radon and Thoron
are determined. After applying the Equilibrium Factors
Equivalent Equilibrium concentrations of the two constituents are
known.

Health Effects of Radon:

It is well known fact that dose due to inhalation of Radon along
with air, we breathe is the largest contributor to the public from natural
radiation sources. As listed in various tables before Tables 2.1-2.5 this is
supplemented by intake of food and water also. Still the inhaled Radon
dose is most harmful as it easily exceeds its limits. Table2.6 lists limits
of Radon set by different countries. Nationwide surveys have been
conducted by many countries to arrive at these limits. Thoron
concentration measurements are also important. A small quantity of
Thoron may increase the dose as it is 4.4 times more harmful than
Radon. For the determination of dose a relation between the potential
alpha energy concentrations of the Radon progeny (PAEC) called cp and
time of inhalation t is important. Further in air whether the progeny are
unattached or attached to aerosol or aerosol clusters determine the
inhalation of radon in the lungs. In the following we shall discuss how
radon leads to lung cancer.
Radon and Lung Cancer:
Radon gas is the largest contributor to human health risks among the
natural radiations. This has been reported in the IAEC report of (1989)
and also by Nazaroff and Nero (1988). 222Rn inhalation alone accounts
for 50% effective equivalent dose to human beings. The decay of Radon
to its progeny in air (218Po and 214Po) in the atmosphere attaches to
tiny dust particles, water vapor, oxygen, trace gases and other solid
surfaces. These daughters remain in air for sufficiently longtime to be
inhaled by humans and living bodies. When these enter the lungs these
can stick to epithelial living of the lungs. There these can irradiate the
tissues with α, β, γ emissions in successive decays. Bronchial stem cells
and emissions in successive cells are considered main targets of these
radiations. Damage to these cells is the cause of lung cancer from radon
exposure. Because of longer range β and γ-rays have lower biological
effectiveness to harm these cells. Their effect is considered negligible.
But the alpha particles are short range highly ionizing. They have higher
linear energy transfer effect and these do damage to DNA of lung cells.
This damage leads to a chain of events causing lung cancer. This
damage is localized; hence lung cancer is the only potential hazard of
radon to human and all living bodies. This has been reported in
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations (BEIR V1, 1999).
Although the thoron progeny concentrations are generally lower yet its
potential for cancer risks cannot be ignored. Its effective dose EECTh is
4.4 times higher than that of EECRn. This has been reported by the
United Nations Scientific Committee on the effects of Atomic
Radiations (UNSCEAR 1993, 2000).

Background Radiation:
There are two types of radiations:
 Natural background radiation
Man made background radiation.

Natural background radiation:

A natural background radiation mainly comes from two primary sources;
cosmic radiation and terrestrial sources.
Average background radiation dose for a human being is about 2-.4
miilisievert per year.
In the environment, this type of exposure is mostly from comic radiation
and natural radionuclide which is greater than the average exposure that
if from medical tests. The medical test ranges from 0.04 to 1 mSv per
year. Natural background radiation mainly comprises of cosmic rays,
series decay (Thorium, Uranium Actinium series etc), Long lived
isotope e.g: 40k, 87rb etc.
Older coal- field power plants which are without effective ash capture
are one of the largest sources of human- caused background radiation
exposure.

Man made background radiation:

Man made background radiation consists of: X-Ray machines,
Radioisotopes, Accelerators, Radioactive waste, Reactors, Nuclear
Fission and Fission Bomb etc.
 Chapter -3
Radon Measurements
There are two methods for measuring radon:

• Active method

• Passive method.
Active method:
Active methods have an active component at the test site. The
component may be the gatherer device for radon; it may be the
electronic detector of the radon, it may and generally does have both an
active gatherer and an active detector.
Active radon testing devices require electricity to function. There are
commonly used by professionals and are considered more reliable. The
radon levels are constantly checked and monitored in the active testing
devices.
An active radon detection device is also disclosed which comprises an
equilibrium absorption material for monitoring radon level. It includes a
gas permeable holding means for the adsorbent and an air pump for
propelling ambient atmosphere through the adsorbent which is located in
the holding means. It also includes a gas flow connecting means by
which the ambient atmosphere flows through the air pump.
A desiccant material and desiccant holding means are included to
remove ambient moisture from the primped atmosphere and where in the
desiccant and the holding means are connected in series with the
adsorbent in its holding means, with the desiccant located upstream with
respect to the flow of the atmosphere. The adsorbent may be activated
Charcoal and the desiccant may be silica gel or anhydrous. The granules
of the charcoal are greater than 0.5mm and less than 5mm. they are
contained in a walled container having porous or mesh like ends, which
are large enough to allow continuous air flow but small enough to
prevent the charcoal from passing through the pores.
The samples are placed in small transparent or translucent vials that are
loaded into instrument known as liquid scintillation counter. The counter
has two photomultiplier tubes connected in a coincidence circuit. The
coincidence circuit assures that genuine light pulses, which reach both
photomultiplier tubes are counted , while surplus pulses which would
only affect one of the tubes; are ignored. Some chemical compounds and
highly colored samples can interfere with the counting process.
This interference, known as “quenching” can be overcome through data
correction or through careful sample preparation. Until now, the Lsc
method itself has only been a laboratory tool. That tool has been adapted
for commercial purposes and in doing so new and surprising innovation
has been made.
Passive Method:
Radon is liberated from the passive absorbent so that the alpha particles
and beta particles which are signature of radon radioactivity.
The passive methods such as the invention to be described here in make
use of passive gas diffusion into any one of a variety of devices. So as to
accumulate the effects of the radon or accumulate the effects of the
radon emanations for later measurement or analysis.
The passive methods and devices accumulate the radon or effects
resulting from the radon. Emanations, by passive diffusion of the
ambient radon bearing air into the accumulator. Measuring is made in a
laboratory environment.
Forex: Plastic track detectors accumulate track evidence for the number
of alpha particles emitted in the decay of radon over a period of time.
Field of invention: this intension relates to the detection and quantitative
measurement of the radioactive isotope of radon, 222Rn, as encountered
in air as in typical public and private buildings. It particularly relates to a
passive detection system in which a radon adsorbent accumulates the
radon by diffusion at the test site and the analysis is carried out by liquid
scintillation techniques in a laboratory instrument.
So, it is convenient to divide the methods and devices which have been
developed fro the detection of low level of radon into passive and active.
The passive methods such as invention make use of passive gas
diffusion into any one of a variety of devices so as to accumulate the
radon or accumulate the effects of radon emanations, for later
measurement or analysis.