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Electricité et électronique
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Interrupteurs
électro-aimant
courant X courant Y
ressort
transistor MOS
voltage X courant Y
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sortie Z
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Il est possible de faire des ordinateurs à l'aide des interrupteurs,
de n'importe quel type
L'ordinateur Harvard Mark 1, construit entre 1939 et 1944, utilisait
des interrupteurs électromécaniques
Le principal défaut de ce type d'interrupteurs est la vitesse: ils
peuvent changer d'état seulement un petit nombre de fois par
seconde
Le Harvard Mark 1 prenait 6 secondes pour multiplier deux
nombres
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Circuits complémentaires
Un point de sortie est toujours connecté à la valeur 0 ou à la
valeur 1 (jamais aux deux), quelles que soient les valeurs des
entrées
X1 X2 ••• Xn
•••
circuit pull-up
C
1
Z
0
C circuit pull-down
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Portes logiques à interrupteurs
1
1 1
X Z X Z
Z
X1
0 0
inverseur buffer X2
X Z
nand 0
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Implémentation électronique
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Les semiconducteurs
Les semiconducteurs sont des matériaux qui peuvent se
comporter comme des conducteurs ou comme des isolants
Le silicium est le plus connu des semiconducteurs
Un cristal pur de silicium est un isolant. Mais il devient
conducteur en lui ajoutant des impuretés (doping)
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Les transistors
Un dispositif plus complexe est le transistor, avec une région
région de silicium placée entre deux autres de type différent
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Transistor MOS
(Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)
NMOS:
drain
gate
source
PMOS:
drain
gate
source
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NMOS PMOS
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Niveaux de tension TTL
sortie entrée
5V (VCC)
2.4V
2V
zone de transition
0.8V
0.4V
0V (GND)
marges de bruit
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Contraintes physiques
Il existe une limite au nombre d'entrées possibles pour une porte
(fan-in ou entrance) et au nombre de portes qui peuvent recevoir
un même signal de sortie (fan-out ou sortance)
augmentation du fan-out
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Tout dispositif électronique introduit un retard entre les entrées
et les sorties: le retard de propagation
X1
Z
X2
X1
porte nand idéale
X2
Z
X1
porte nand réelle
X2
Z
retard de propagation
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Portes tri-state
enable X Z
0 0 tri-state
X Z 0 1 tri-state
enable 1 0 0
1 1 1
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décodeur d’adresse
adresse de la source
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Portes collecteur ouvert
On peut également mettre deux sorties ensemble en utilisant des
portes où l'élément de pull-up doit être mis à l’extérieur.
Dans ce cas, le point de jonction fait office de porte ET (wired and)
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Circuits intégrés
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Dans les années 50, les composants électroniques étaient
fabriqués séparément
Pour faire un circuit, il fallait donc connecter un certain nombre
de composants (diodes, transistors, résistances, etc)
Dans un circuit intégré, les différents composants sont fabriqués
sur la même pièce de semiconducteur: c'est le circuit intégré (IC)
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Loi de Moore
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Transistors Transistors
(prédiction pour 2004) (en 2004)
loi de Moore
27.4 trillions
(2x - 12 mois)
loi de Moore
3.3 billions
(2x - 18 mois)
loi de Moore
37 millions
(2x - 24 mois)
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60 YEARS OF THE TRANSISTOR: 1947 – 2007
Perhaps the most important invention of the 1965 – Moore’s Law, which states that the
number of transistors on a chip doubles about
Motorola introduces the first
commercial mobile phone –
the DynaTAC 800X – powered
2006 – The dual core Intel® Itanium® 2
processor launches with the world’s most
The Revolution Continues
intricate product design to date, utilizing
20th century, transistors are found in many every two years, is born when Intel’s Gordon
Moore made a prediction about the 1972 – Intel’s first microprocessor,
by transistors and costing a
mere $3,995.
more than 1.72 billion transistors.
Intel continues to deliver on the promise
semiconductor business that still holds true
devices and are the building blocks of 1953 – The first commercial device today.
powered the Busicom calculator
and paved the way for the
1981 – IBM introduces the first
personal computer with an Intel of Moore’s Law with the introduction
to make use of the transistor is put personal computer. 8088 processor serving as the
computer chips. Intel, the largest manufac- on the market – the Sonotone 1010 “brains” behind the computer.
2000 – Silicon Valley based company develops
hearing aid.
TiVo - a device that records TV programs on an
internal hard drive.
2007 – 45nm Intel debuts the Penryn chip – the biggest
change to transistors (all 820 million of them in our of powerful multi-core technologies,
turer of computer chips, continues to innovate quad-core processors) in 40 years based on the company’s
to help PCs and laptops become smaller, 1993 – With the creation of the World
45 nanometer transistor technology. More than 2,000
45nm transistors fit across the width of a human hair. transforming the way we live, work and
1971 – Intel launches its first Wide Web in 1990, the need for transistor
speed becomes greater than ever.
faster, sleeker and more energy-efficient. microprocessor, the 4004, containing
just over 2,000 transistors.
play once again.
2003 – Intel® Centrino® mobile
Many new applications and inventions technology brought high performance,
enhanced battery life, and integrated
powered by transistors have impacted all of 1975 – The Altair 8800 1982 – Intel launches their new high
1993 – The World Wide Web
WLAN capability to thinner, lighter PCs.
microcomputer, based on the Intel® performance, 16-bit 80286
our lives over the past 60 years. 1954 – The first transistor radio, the Regency
TR-1, goes on the market for just $49.99. The 1971 – Busicom introduces the
8080 microprocessor, was the first
successful home or personal
microprocessor featuring 134,000
transistors.
debuts and Intel responds with
its Pentium® processor, boasting 2007 – In the second half of 2007, Intel began
radio contains just four transistors. first single-chip, pocket-size speeds of 66 and 60 MHz 3.1 production of the next generation Intel® Core™2 and
computer. Xeon processor families based on 45-nanometer
calculator, the LE-120A "HANDY," million transistors.
which uses a MOSTEK MK6010 (nm) Hi-k metal gate silicon technology.
integrated circuit.
Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors
Number of transistors Number of transistors 1.5 GHz Number of transistors Number of transistors Number of transistors
2.93 GHz Number of transistors
Initial clock speed
Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology
Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology 42,000,000 Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology Manufacturing technology
291,000,000 Manufacturing technology
582,000,000 820,000,000
Manufacturing Technology
10μ 10μ 6μ 3μ 3μ 1.5μ 1.5μ 1μ 0.8μ 0.6μ 0.25μ 0.18μ Manufacturing technology 90nm 0.13μ 65nm Manufacturing technology 90nm Manufacturing technology 45nm
Manufacturing technology
The groundbreaking Intel® 4004 The Intel® 8008 processor was The Intel® 8080 processor made The Intel® 8086 processor was the A pivotal sale to IBM's new personal The Intel® 286 was the first The Intel386™ processor could run multiple The Intel486™ introduced the integrated The Intel® Pentium® processor, executing The Pentium® Pro processor delivered The Intel® Pentium® II processor’s significant The Intel® Pentium® III processor executed The Intel® Pentium® 4 processor The Intel® Pentium® M processor, the Intel® The Intel® Itanium® 2 processor is the successor The Intel® Pentium® D processor features the Intel® Core™2 Duo processor optimizes Dual-Core Intel® Itanium® 2 processor 9000 series The unprecedented performance of the Intel® Intel’s next generation Intel® Core™2 processor
processor was introduced with twice as powerful as the Intel® video games and home first 16 bit processor and delivered computer division made the Intel® Intel processor that could software programs at once and featured floating point unit. This generation of 112 million commands per second, allowed more performance than previous performance improvement over previous Internet Streaming SIMD Extensions, ushers in the advent of the 855 chipset family, and the Intel® of the first Itanium processor. first desktop duel-core design with two mobile microarchitecture of the Intel® outperforms the earlier, single-core version of the Core™2 Quad processor is made possible by each family, codenamed "Penryn", contains
the same computing power 4004 processor. computers possible. about ten times the performance 8088 processor the brains of IBM's run all the software written 275,000 transistors—more than 100 times computers really allowed users to go from a computers to more easily incorporate "real generation processors through an Intel-Architecture processors was based on the extended the concept of processor nanotechnology age. PRO/Wireless 2100 network connection are The architecture is based on Explicitly Parallel complete processor cores, that each run at Pentium® M processor and enhanced it Itanium 2 processors. With more than 1.7 billion of the four complete execution cores delivering industry-leading microarchitecture
as ENIAC. of its predecessors. new hit product--the IBM PC. for its predecessor. as many as the original Intel® 4004. command level computer into point and world" data such as speech, sound, innovation called Dynamic Execution. seamless combination of the P6 identification and utilized multiple the three components of Intel® Centrino® Instruction Computing (EPIC). It is theoretically the same speed, in one physical package. with many microarchitecture innovations. transistors and with two execution cores, these the full power of Intel Core microarchitecture. enhancements. Further, new SSE4 instructions
click computing. handwriting and photographic images. This made possible the advanced 3D microarchitecture and Intel MMX media low-power states to conserve power processor technology. Intel® Centrino® capable of performing roughly eight times Intel® Centrino® Pro and Intel® vPro™ processors double the performance of previous The Quad-Core Intel® Xeon® processor provides for improved video, imaging, and 3D content
visualization and interactive capabilities. enhancement technology. during idle times. processor technology was designed more work per clock cycle than other CISC and processor technology provide excellent Itanium processors while reducing average power 50 percent greater performance than industry- performance and new power management
specifically for portable computing. RISC architectures. performance from the Dual-Core Intel® consumption. leading Dual-Core Intel® Xeon® processor in the features will extend “Penryn” processor family
Core™2 Duo processor. same power envelope. The quad-core-based leadership in performance and energy efficiency.
servers enable more applications to run with a
smaller footprint.
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Circuits imprimés
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Références
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