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INTER N A T I O N A L R E P O R T S
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Content
4 | EDITORIAL
Editorial
Dear Readers,
gerhard.wahlers@kas.de
6 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 4|2011
Christian Hübner
Christian Hübner is
Coordinator for En-
vironmental, Climate In 1992 the largest environmental conference of the UN,
and Energy Issues
the United Nations Conference on Environment and Deve-
in the European and
International Coope- lopment (UNCED), also called “Earth Summit”, was held in
ration Department of Rio de Janeiro. The focus of the conference was the need
the Konrad-Adenauer-
for a new paradigm for sustainable social development,
Stiftung in Berlin.
to stop the unabated overstraining of natural resources.
As a result, the concept of sustainability gained worldwide
popularity, and a flood of new ideas and approaches
from various scientific disciplines penetrated the global
society. However, viewed in retrospect, the popularity of
the sustainability paradigm also led to the fact that the
term was used more and more inflationary and nowadays
is hardly ever associated with its original meaning. Among
the outcomes of the conference are the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change agreement
(UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification agreement (UNCCD), and the Convention
on Biological Diversity agreement (CBD).
Climate Economics
Energy
Ecosystem Services
Conclusions
This is why many climate scientists are urging that the rise
in average global temperatures should reach no more than
two degrees Celsius higher than the pre-industrial era. This
has also been set as a clear political goal. At the EU summit
in early 2005, European heads of state and government
leaders recognised the need for this limit of two degrees
in order to meet the overall targets of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change.4
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol has up till now been the most
important instrument of international climate policy. By
signing the Protocol, the developed countries have pledged
to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2
per cent compared to the 1990 level between
2008 and 2012. In order to hit this target, The system of “burden sharing” means
the 15 EU member states at that time were that the emission-reduction obligati-
ons are distributed among EU members
faced with reducing their emissions by a in relation to their economic power.
total of 8 per cent. The system of “burden
sharing” means that the emission-reduction obligations
are distributed among EU members in relation to their
economic power. So, for example, Germany has to reduce
its greenhouse emissions by 21 per cent by 2012, while
Portugal is allowed to increase its emissions by 27 per
cent. The new EU member states which have joined since
2004 have set their own targets within the framework of
the Kyoto Protocol.
The “Bali Action Plan” was aimed at all parties to the climate
convention, which included the USA.8 It stipulated that all
the developed nations should be set similar targets, but no
concrete figures were set for emission reductions. Instead,
a reduction of 25 to 40 per cent by 2020 compared to 1990
was set for developed nations. For the first time, devel-
oping countries also made a commitment to take specific
steps to combat climate change.9
Copenhagen
Europe 2020
Cancún
EU Energy Summit
In its conclusions, the European Council The European Council advocated dra-
advocated drawing up a “Roadmap for a low wing up a “Roadmap for a low carbon
economy 2050” in order to follow the
carbon economy 2050” in order to follow recommendations of the World Climate
the recommendations of the World Climate Council.
Council. According to its estimates, the
developed countries will need to reduce their greenhouse
gas emissions by 80 to 90 per cent compared to 1990
by 2050 – something which will require a “revolution in
energy systems”.24
Outlook
Yet even if the EU achieves all its targets, it still has to rely
on the support of the international community. Climate
change can only be effectively combated if the biggest
polluters – particularly the USA, China and India – are
willing to reduce their emissions. The next chance for
an international agreement will be at the UN Climate
Conference in Durban in December 2011. Until then, every
country must accept to make concessions in order to make
it possible to agree on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol.
Emerging powers
The IBSA states as partners and leaders in
a future global Climate Change regime 1
Romy Chevallier
Romy Chevallier is
1
Senior Researcher
for the Governance The global challenge of climate change is well beyond the
of Africa’s Resources
capacity of any one country or region to tackle alone. Given
Programme at the
South African Institute the magnitude and scale of what is required in response
of International Affairs to its impacts, collective action from the developed and
(SAIIA) in Johannes-
developing world is the only way forward. India, Brazil
burg.
and South Africa, the so-called IBSA states, are becoming
increasingly significant global actors and strategic partners
in global environmental governance. As a result of impor-
tant changes in the global geo-political landscape and their
growing political and economic importance, there is a need
to recognize the important contribution of these countries
towards a more equitable global climate change regime.
As these countries have tremendous domestic challenges
to deal with, it is interesting to explore new areas of
engagement between traditional actors and new partners
on issues of international concern.
Brazil and South Africa have recently There is an urgent need for developing
made progress in developing coupled countries to collectively establish centres of
climate models capable of making pro-
jections of global change. expertise and best practice in this regard.
Brazil and South Africa have recently made
progress in developing coupled climate models capable of
making projections of global change. This raw data and
sufficient knowledge gathering and generation would
substantially add to the process of understanding the
science of climate change, making climate predictions
more accurate and relevant to their respective regions.
15 | UNDP, n. 2, 194.
16 | Ibid., “Summary”, 25; these are 2005 figures.
4|2011 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 45
Table 1
Voluntary pledges to the Copenhagen Accord
by countries
Table 2
Renewable energy targets implemented
in selected developing countries
India 10 per cent of power generation On track to meet or exceed RE target, having
by 2012 already achieved 8 per cent in 2009
China 10 per cent by 2010 and 15 By 2006 having achieved 8 per cent of its pri-
per cent by 2020 mary energy production from RE. Now scaling
up wind and solar to meet these goals
India
Brazil
South Africa
Conclusion
Marc Frings
2010 figures hitting 6.5 per cent.5 Along with China and
India, Indonesia is one of the three countries with the
fastest growth rates of all the G20 countries (the Group of
20 major advanced and emerging economies).
9 | Ibid.
10 | Half of the plantations will be in Kalimantan and a quarter in
Papua. Cf. Gouverneur, n. 6; Marianne Klute, “Schall und
Rauch. Umweltprobleme und Umweltpolitik,” in: Genia Find-
eisen, Kristina Großmann, Nicole Weydmann (eds.), Heraus-
forderungen für Indonesiens Demokratie. Bilanz und Pers-
pektiven, (Berlin: regiospectra, 2010), 225.
4|2011 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 63
Indonesia’s Contribution
to Climate Protection
Last year’s announcements by the Australian Norway will give one billion U.S. dol-
government that it would provide the Indo- lars if the Indonesian government can
provide evidence that they have achie-
nesian government with a further 55 million ved reductions in greenhouse gases.
Euro to assist in reducing emissions,27 is
still chicken-feed when compared to the pledges made by
the Norwegian government. Over the next seven to eight
years the Norwegians will give the Indonesian government
3. Policy Requirements
Political reforms, the adoption of new Indonesia will only profit financially from
legal regulations and the strengthe- the agreement with Norway if the political
ning of existing laws are conditions set
out at the beginning of the Norwegian institutions and agencies on a national and
road map. local level act in a transparent and respon-
sible manner.53 Political reforms, the adoption of new legal
regulations and the strengthening of existing laws are
conditions set out at the beginning of the Norwegian road
map – with good reason.
Conclusion
Andreas Dittrich
China has already sets its own targets for the reduction
of CO2 emissions. In November 2009 its government
announced that it would reduce CO2 levels by 40 to 45
per cent by 2020 compared to 1990. This target was also
recorded in the Copenhagen Accord of January 2010. At
the climate conference in Cancún in December 2010, China
even hinted that it might allow international monitoring of
its carbon emissions.8 These are the first signs that China
is ready to play a more active role in international climate
protection. Other positive signs are the growing numbers
of delegates sent to take part in international climate talks
and the fact that in October 2010 China hosted its first UN
climate conference in Tianjin.
Renewable Energies
Hydropower is by far the most important By 2007 hydropower projects were al-
alternative energy source for electricity ready providing 16 per cent of energy
supply. These projects, though, inclu-
production in China. By 2007 hydropower ded mega-projects that were heavily
projects were already providing 16 per cent criticised for their environmental im-
pact.
of the energy supply. These projects, though,
include mega-projects such as the Three
Gorges Dam which has been heavily criticised for its detri-
mental effect on the environment and the fact that it forced
millions of people from their homes. However, smaller,
more environmentally-friendly hydropower projects13 are
providing five per cent of the electricity supply, making
them the second-largest renewable source for electricity
production. In comparison, other renewable energy
carriers have so far played a minor role, with photovoltaics
still being very marginal.14
Wind Power
Solar Power
Harmony as a
national mission
Singapore’s way of dealing with
Immigration and Integration
The idea for this marriage policy was initiated Today the state’s founder Lee Kuan
by the then prime minister Lee Kuan Yew Yew is emphatically promoting to wel-
come young immigrants now and in fu-
in 1983. He engaged himself vehemently ture. They are the remedy for an ageing
to make marriage and motherhood really society.
attractive for the well educated women. Today
the state’s founder, by now 87 years old, is emphatically
promoting to welcome young immigrants now and in future.
They are the remedy for an ageing society. “Otherwise, our
economy will slow down, like the Japanese economy. We
will have a less dynamic and less thriving Singapore. This
is not the future for our children and grandchildren.”1 In his
speech in January, in front of more than 1,000 members of
the “Chinese Clan Associations”, Lee emphasised that the
first generation of new immigrants will need some time for
the integration, however, their children would already be
“completely Singaporean”.
The Singapore government has chosen two Immigration is controlled not only
strategies in order to manage the influx and with regard to demographics but also
depending on the situation of the eco-
utilise it for its own development purposes at nomy. Where integration is concerned,
the same time: Immigration is controlled not Singapore leaves nothing to chance.
only with regard to demographics but also
depending on the situation of the economy and above all,
where integration is concerned, Singapore leaves nothing
to chance. Freedom of religion, the housing market,
education policy and the media are the cornerstones of a
system that reaches out into all cracks and crevices of life.
Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong hold For several decades Singapore has already
his speech at the occasion of the natio- been a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society.
nal holiday in August in three different
languages: Malayan, Mandarin and It is for that reason that the Prime Minister,
English. Lee Hsien Loong, hold his speech in three
different languages at the occasion of the national holiday
in August: Malayan, Mandarin and English. A decisive factor
for the immigration policy of his government is not to shift
the “mixing ratio” in the population in favour of or at the
expense of an ethnic group. This does not only apply to a
percentage of the overall population but for example also
to the affiliation with the different religions. The anxiety
especially amongst the “minority communities” for a
“foreign infiltration” was picked up in a reassuring remark
in Lee’s speech at the occasion of the national holiday last
year: “The current mix is stable, and contributes to our
racial and religious harmony.”7
“Muscular Secularism”
With its declared aim “to integrate new arrivals into our
society, so that over time they will become Singaporean in
their outlook and identity”,11 the government promotes not
only the mutual English language but also the
The “mother tongue” policy dictates mother tongues of other ethnical groups. The
a school education with at least two so-called “mother tongue” policy dictates a
languages. Originally this was imple-
mented with a view to the economic school education with at least two languages.
development. Originally this was implemented with a view to
the young state and its economic development. Promoting
and maintaining the knowledge of Mandarin for example
meant that trading with China became easier. Apart from
that, teaching in the mother-tongue of various different
ethnic groups today is also supposed to encourage cultural
roots and traditions.
abroad. Since the late sixties, the city state has repeatedly
eased the regulations for an influx of foreign workers,
especially for the construction sector, transport industry,
shipbuilding as well as nurses for hospitals and old peoples’
homes. Many less qualified female foreigners are employed
as domestic workers.
Successes like these are picked up and According to the “Maintenance of Reli-
reported in length by the media in the gious Harmony Act″, publications crea-
ting “feelings of enmity, hatred, ill-
South-East Asian city state. They, too, are will, or hostility between different reli-
part of the integration policy. Press and gious groups″ are prohibited.
radio produce in various languages of the
largest ethnic groups (English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil).
According to the “Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act”,
publications creating “feelings of enmity, hatred, ill-will, or
hostility between different religious groups” are prohibited
for press and radio.17
19 | Ibid.
20 | S. Ramesh, “It’s a matter of perspective,” todayonline.com,
January 31, 2011, http://todayonline.com/Singapore/
EDC110131-0000092 (accessed February 16, 2011).
21 | S. Ramesh, “Muslims have done much to strengthen integra-
tion, says PM Lee,” channelnewsasia.com, January 30, 2011,
http://channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/
view/1107843/1/.html (accessed February 16, 2011).
4|2011 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 109
Post-Election Slovakia
The First Half-Year of the Center-Right
Government
Grigorij Mesežnikov
Table 1
Results of parliamentary elections in Slovakia,
June 12, 2010
The prosecutor general’s election has set the mirror not only
to ruling coalition, which possesses some disloyal MPs, but
also to parliamentary opposition, viewpoints of which have
been confirming that the constitutional framework scope
of the liberal democracy seems too narrow. The warning
signal that the most powerful opposition party Smer-SD
would have been able under certain circumstances to leave
the constitutional frame was the announcement of Fico that
in case of changing the method of the prosecutor general’s
election, Smer-SD might proceed in accordance with Article
32 of the Constitution: “The citizens shall have the right
to resist anyone who would abolish the democratic order
of human rights and freedoms set in this Constitution, if
the activities of constitutional authorities and the effective
application of legal means are restrained.” Announcement
of the intention to “activate” the aforementioned Article
of the Constitution in the situation, when there is no any
“abolishing of the democratic order of human rights and
freedoms”, but only due to the party’s disagreement with
submitted proposition for legitimate and legal change of
existing legislative standards is raising questions as to
what extent is the internal character and overall political
constellation of opposition Smer-SD in accordance with
values and principles of the liberal democracy.
122 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 4|2011
Fico’s government had promised to The former government of Fico had promised
approve the loan to Greece, but before to approve the loan to Greece, it had even
the elections it had hesitated to sub-
mit the loan contract to parliament for negotiated the conditions with Brussels, but
ratification. before the elections in June it had hesitated
to submit the loan contract to parliament for ratification.
It had proceeded quite arrogantly towards the opposition,
which had demanded to release its conditions and had
insisted on calling a separate parliamentary session. This
session was, however, marred by the ruling coalition of
Smer-SD, SNS and ĽS-HZDS, since it had the majority in
parliament. When the polls showed that the general public
had not been supportive in helping Greece, Fico as an
authentic populist tried to sweep the whole problem under
the carpet in order not to unnecessarily irritate his voters.
He had claimed that the new government would have been
handling that after the elections. Who knows how things
would have wound up if the new government had been
consisting of Smer-SD? We will never find out.
What next?