Common Water Quality Problems and Their Methods of

Treatment
The following chart is intended to serve as a general guide for consumers in determining the
cause of problems with their water that can be felt, smelled, tasted, or seen. In some cases,
these symptoms may indicate a serious problem -- in others, only the taste and smell of tap
water (its aesthetics) may be affected.

A. Sense of Feeling

Impurity or Symptom Cause Health Effects Means of

Contaminant Treatment
Hard Water Soap curd, and scum in Calcium Aesthetic only. Cation exchange
wash basins & bathtub. (limestone) and However if consumed, water softener or
Whitish scale deposits in magnesium could lead to kidney/ reverse osmosis.
pipes, water heater & tea salts. bladder stones
kettle.
Grittiness Abrasive texture to water Excessively fine Various -- sand could Sand trap in ultra-
when washing or residual sand, silt in trap contaminants filtration.
left in sink. water.

B. Sense of Smell

Impurity or Symptom Cause Health Effects Means of Treatment

Contaminant
Odor Musty, earthy Generally, harmless Aesthetic only Activated carbon filter.
or wood smell. organic matter.
Chlorine smell. Excessive Could occur from Dechlorinate with activated
chlorination. formation of carbon filter.
disinfection
byproducts
Rotten egg 1. Dissolved Various effects 1. Manganese greensand
odor - hydrogen sulfide filter - constant
tarnished gas. chlorination followed by
silverware. filtration/ dechlorination.

2. Presence of 2. Constant chlorination

sulfate reducing followed by activated
bacteria in raw carbon filter.
water.
Hot water, Action of Various Effects Remove magnesium rod
rotten egg magnesium rod in from heater.
odor. hot water heater.
Detergent odor, Seepage of septic Disease-causing 1. Locate and eliminate
water foams discharge into microorganisms may source of seepage - then
when drawn. underground water be present heavily chlorinate well.
supply.
2. Activated carbon filter
will adsorb limited amount.
 Gasoline or oil Leak in fuel oil tank Fuel components may No residential treatment.
(hydro-carbon) or gasoline tank be toxic or Locate and eliminate
smell. seeping into water carcinogenic seepage.
supply.
Methane gas. Naturally occurring Various effects Aeration system and
caused by decaying repump.
organics.
Phenol smell Industrial waste Various -- Activated carbon filter will
(chemical seeping into surface compounds may be adsorb short-term.
odor). or ground water carcinogenic
supplies.

C. Sense of Taste

Impurity or Symptom Cause Health Means of Treatment

Contaminant Effects
Taste Salty or High sodium content. Aesthetic only 1. Deionize drinking water
brackish. only with disposable mixed
bed - anion/cation resins; or

2. Reverse osmosis; or

3. Home distillation system.

Alkali taste. High dissolved mineral Aesthetic only Reduce by reverse osmosis.
containing alkalinity.
(Stained aluminum
cookware.)
Metallic 1. Very low pH water (3.0- Various -- 1. Correct with calcite type
taste. 5.5). depends on filter (see Acid Water).
cause
2. Heavy iron concentration 2. (See Iron Water).
in water above 3.0 ppm Fe.

3. Leaching of lead and

copper

D. Sense of Sight

Impurity or Symptom Cause Health Effects Means of Treatment

Contaminant
Turbidity Dirt, salt, clay. Suspended matter in Turbid water may "Calcite" or Neutralize
surface water pond, contain disease (media) type filter - up
stream or lake. causing to 50 ppm
microorganisms
Sand grit, silt or clay Well sand from new Turbid water may Sand trap and/or new
substances. well or defective well contain disease well screen
 screen. causing
microorganisms
Rust in water. Acid water causing Turbid water may Neutralizing calcite filter
iron "pick-up." contain disease to correct low pH
causing acidity and remove
microorganisms precipitated iron
Gray string-like Organic mater in raw Turbid water may Constant chlorination
fiber. water algae, etc. contain disease followed by activated
causing carbon filter to
microorganisms dechlorinate.
Acid water Green stains on Water which has high Could lead to 1. Neutralizing calcite
sinks and silver, carbon dioxide health effects if filter down to pH of 5.5,
porcelain bathroom content (pH below acid water causes or
fixtures. Blue-green 6.8) reacting with leaching of lead
cast to water. brass and copper and copper 2. Calcite/ Magnesia -
pipes and fittings. oxide mix (5 to 1) for
higher flow rate and to
correct very low pH
water.

3. Soda ash chemical

feed followed by
filtration.
Discolored Brown-red stains 1. Dissolved iron in Various effects 1. Can remove 0.5 ppm
water red, on sinks and other influent (more than of Fe+ for every
"Iron" water porcelain 0.3 ppm Fe+) water grain/gal of hardness to
appears clear when 10 ppm with water
bathroom fixtures.
first drawn at cold softener and minimum
Water turns
water faucet. Above pH of 6.7.
brown-red in 0.3 ppm Fe causes
cooking or upon staining. 2. Over 10 ppm Fe+
heating. Clothing chlorination with
becomes sufficient retention tank
discolored. time for full oxidation
followed by filtration/
dechlorination.

3. In warm climates
residual aerator and
filtration will
substantially reduce
iron content.
2. Precipitate iron Various effects 1. Up to 10 ppm iron
(water will not clear removed by manganese
when drawn). greensand filter, if pH
6.7 or higher, or;

2. Manganese treated,
non-hydrous aluminum
silicate filter where pH
of 6.8 or higher and
oxygen is 15% of total
iron content.

3. Downflow water
 softener with good
backwash, up to 1.0
ppm Fe. Above 1 ppm
to 10 ppm use calcite
filter followed by
downflow water
softener.

Calcite media type filter

to remove precipitated
iron.
Brownish cast does Iron pick-up from old Various effects 1. Treat well to destroy
not precipitate. pipe with water iron bacteria with
having a pH below solution of hydrochloric
6.8. Organic acid then constant
(bacterial) iron. chlorination followed by
activated carbon media
filtration and
dechlorination.

2. Potassium
permanganate chemical
feed followed by
filtration.
Reddish color in Colloidal iron. Various effects Constant chlorination
water sample after followed by activated
standing 24 hours. carbon media filter
dechlorination.
Yellow water Yellowish cast to Tannins (humic Various effects 1. Adsorption via
water after softening acids) in water from special macro-porous
and/or filtering. peaty soil and Type I anion exchange
decaying vegetation. resin regenerated with
salt (NaCl) up to 3.0
ppm.

2. Manganese
greensand or
manganese treated
sodium alumino-silicate
under proper set of
conditions.
Milky water Cloudiness of water 1. Some precipitant 1. Various effects 1. Blow down domestic
when drawn. sludge created or commercial hot
during heating of water heater tank
water. 2. Aesthetic only periodically.

2. High degree of air 2. Water will usually

in water from poorly 3. Various effects clear quickly upon
functioning pump. standing.

3. Excessive 3. Reduce coagulant

coagulant-feed being quantity being fed,
carried through filter. service filters properly.
Very high Blackening and 1. Excessive salt Various effects 1. Use other chloride
chloride pitting of stainless content. resistant metals.
content in steel sinks and
water stainless ware in 2. High temperature 2. Reduce total
commercial drying creates dissolved solids by
dishwashers chloride reverse osmosis.
concentration
accelerating
corrosion.

Note: This information has been taken principally from a paper titled "Sensitivity: A Key
Water Conditioning Skill" by Wes McGowan. The paper was published in Water Technology,
September/October 1982.

According to recent news and reports, most tap and well water in the U.S. are not safe for
drinking due to heavy industrial and environmental pollution. Toxic bacteria, chemicals and
heavy metals routinely penetrate and pollute our natural water sources making people sick
while exposing them to long term health consequences such as liver damage, cancer and
other serious conditions. We have reached the point where all sources of our drinking water,
including municipal water systems, wells, lakes, rivers, and even glaciers, contain some
level of contamination. Even some brands of bottled water have been found to contain high
levels of contaminants in addition to plastics chemical leaching from the bottle.

A good water filtration system installed in your home is the only way to proactively monitor
and ensure the quality and safety of your drinking water. Reverse osmosis water purification
systems can remove 90-99% of all contaminants from city and well water to deliver healthy
drinking water for you and your family.

Microorganisms
MCL or
Potential Health Effects from Sources of Contaminant in
Contaminant TT1
Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)2
3
Cryptosporidium TT Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and fecal animal
diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) waste
Giardia lamblia TT3 Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and animal fecal
diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) waste
Heterotrophic plate TT3 HPC has no health effects; it is an HPC measures a range of
count analytic method used to measure bacteria that are naturally
the variety of bacteria that are present in the environment
common in water. The lower the
concentration of bacteria in
drinking water, the better
maintained the water system is.
Legionella TT3 Legionnaire's Disease, a type of Found naturally in water;
pneumonia multiplies in heating systems
Total Coliforms 5.0%4 Not a health threat in itself; it is Coliforms are naturally
(including fecal used to indicate whether other present in the environment;
coliform and E. potentially harmful bacteria may as well as feces; fecal
Coli) be present5 coliforms and E. coli only
come from human and
animal fecal waste.
Turbidity TT3 Turbidity is a measure of the Soil runoff
cloudiness of water. It is used to
indicate water quality and
filtration effectiveness (e.g.,
whether disease-causing
organisms are present). Higher
turbidity levels are often
associated with higher levels of
disease-causing microorganisms
such as viruses, parasites and
some bacteria. These organisms
can cause symptoms such as
nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and
associated headaches.
Viruses (enteric) TT3 Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and animal fecal
diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) waste

Disinfection Byproducts
MCL or
Potential Health Effects from Sources of Contaminant
Contaminant TT1
Ingestion of Water in Drinking Water
(mg/L)2

Bromate 0.010 Increased risk of cancer Byproduct of drinking water

disinfection
Chlorite 1.0 Anemia; infants & young Byproduct of drinking water
children: nervous system effects disinfection
Haloacetic acids 0.060 Increased risk of cancer Byproduct of drinking water
(HAA5) disinfection

Total 0.10 Liver, kidney or central nervous Byproduct of drinking water

Trihalomethanes ---------- system problems; increased risk disinfection
(TTHMs) 0.080 of cancer

Disinfectants
MRDL1 Potential Health Effects from Sources of Contaminant in
Contaminant
(mg/L)2 Ingestion of Water Drinking Water

Chloramines (as MRDL=4.01 Eye/nose irritation; stomach Water additive used to

Cl2) discomfort, anemia control microbes

Chlorine (as Cl2) MRDL=4.01 Eye/nose irritation; stomach Water additive used to
discomfort control microbes
1
Chlorine dioxide MRDL=0.8 Anemia; infants & young Water additive used to
(as ClO2) children: nervous system effects control microbes

Inorganic Chemicals
MCL or TT1 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
Contaminant
(mg/L)2 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water

Antimony 0.006 Increase in blood cholesterol; Discharge from petroleum

decrease in blood sugar refineries; fire retardants;
ceramics; electronics; solder
Arsenic 0.010 Skin damage or problems with Erosion of natural deposits;
as of circulatory systems, and may runoff from orchards, runoff
01/23/06 have increased risk of getting from glass &
cancer electronicsproduction wastes
Asbestos 7 MFL Increased risk of developing Decay of asbestos cement in
(fiber >10 benign intestinal polyps water mains; erosion of
micrometers) natural deposits

Barium 2 Increase in blood pressure Discharge of drilling wastes;

discharge from metal
refineries; erosion of natural
deposits
Beryllium 0.004 Intestinal lesions Discharge from metal
refineries and coal-burning
factories; discharge from
electrical, aerospace, and
defense industries
Cadmium 0.005 Kidney damage Corrosion of galvanized pipes;
erosion of natural deposits;
discharge from metal
refineries; runoff from waste
batteries and paints
Chromium (total) 0.1 Allergic dermatitis Discharge from steel and pulp
mills; erosion of natural
deposits
Copper TT8; Short term exposure: Corrosion of household
Action Gastrointestinal distress plumbing systems; erosion of
Level=1.3 natural deposits
Long term exposure: Liver or
kidney damage

People with Wilson's Disease

should consult their personal
doctor if the amount of copper
in their water exceeds the
action level
Cyanide (as free 0.2 Nerve damage or thyroid Discharge from steel/metal
cyanide) problems factories; discharge from
plastic and fertilizer factories
Fluoride 4.0 Bone disease (pain and Water additive which
 tenderness of the bones); promotes strong teeth;
Children may get mottled erosion of natural deposits;
teeth discharge from fertilizer and
aluminum factories
8
Lead TT ; Infants and children: Delays in Corrosion of household
Action physical or mental plumbing systems; erosion of
Level=0.015 development; children could natural deposits
show slight deficits in attention
span and learning abilities

Adults: Kidney problems; high

blood pressure
Mercury 0.002 Kidney damage Erosion of natural deposits;
(inorganic) discharge from refineries and
factories; runoff from landfills
and croplands
Nitrate (measured 10 Infants below the age of six Runoff from fertilizer use;
as Nitrogen) months who drink water leaching from septic tanks,
containing nitrate in excess of sewage; erosion of natural
the MCL could become deposits
seriously ill and, if untreated,
may die. Symptoms include
shortness of breath and blue-
baby syndrome.
Nitrite (measured 1 Infants below the age of six Runoff from fertilizer use;
as Nitrogen) months who drink water leaching from septic tanks,
containing nitrite in excess of sewage; erosion of natural
the MCL could become deposits
seriously ill and, if untreated,
may die. Symptoms include
shortness of breath and blue-
baby syndrome.
Selenium 0.05 Hair or fingernail loss; Discharge from petroleum
numbness in fingers or toes; refineries; erosion of natural
circulatory problems deposits; discharge from
mines
Thallium 0.002 Hair loss; changes in blood; Leaching from ore-processing
kidney, intestine, or liver sites; discharge from
problems electronics, glass, and drug
factories

Radionuclides
MCL or
Potential Health Effects from Sources of Contaminant
Contaminant TT1
Ingestion of Water in Drinking Water
(mg/L)2

Alpha particles 15 Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits

picocuries of certain minerals that are
per Liter radioactive and may emit a
form of radiation known as
(pCi/L)
 alpha radiation
Beta particles and 4 Increased risk of cancer Decay of natural and man-
photon emitters millirems made deposits of
per year
certain minerals that are
radioactive and may emit
forms of radiation known as
photons and beta radiation
Radium 226 and 5 pCi/L Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits
Radium 228
(combined)

Uranium 30 ug/L Increased risk of cancer, kidney Erosion of natural deposits

as of toxicity
12/08/03

Notes:
1
Definitions:
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed
in drinking water. MCLs are set as close to MCLGs as feasible using the best available
treatment technology and taking cost into consideration. MCLs are enforceable standards.

Treatment Technique - A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant

in drinking water.

2
Units are in milligrams per liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted. Milligrams per liter are
equivalent to parts per million.

3
EPA's surface water treatment rules require systems using surface water or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water to (1) disinfect their water, and (2) filter their
water or meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are
controlled at the following levels:

• Cryptosporidium (as of1/1/02 for systems serving >10,000 and 1/14/05 for systems
serving <10,000) 99% removal.
• Giardia lamblia: 99.9% removal/inactivation
• Viruses: 99.99% removal/inactivation
• Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are
removed/inactivated, Legionella will also be controlled.
• Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 nephelolometric
turbidity units (NTU); systems that filter must ensure that the turbidity go no higher
than 1 NTU (0.5 NTU for conventional or direct filtration) in at least 95% of the daily
samples in any month. As of January 1, 2002, turbidity may never exceed 1 NTU,
and must not exceed 0.3 NTU in 95% of daily samples in any month.
• HPC: No more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter.
• Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (Effective Date: January 14, 2005);
Surface water systems or (GWUDI) systems serving fewer than 10,000 people must
comply with the applicable Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
provisions (e.g. turbidity standards, individual filter monitoring, Cryptosporidium
 removal requirements, updated watershed control requirements for unfiltered
systems).
• Filter Backwash Recycling; The Filter Backwash Recycling Rule requires systems that
recycle to return specific recycle flows through all processes of the system's existing
conventional or direct filtration system or at an alternate location approved by the
state.

4
more than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that
collect fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total
coliform-positive per month.) Every sample that has total coliform must be analyzed for
either fecal coliforms or E. coli if two consecutive TC-positive samples, and one is also
positive for E.coli fecal coliforms, system has an acute MCL violation.

5
Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human or animal wastes. Disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in these
wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. These
pathogens may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with
severely compromised immune systems.

6
Although there is no collective MCLG for this contaminant group, there are individual
MCLGs for some of the individual contaminants:

• Trihalomethanes: bromodichloromethane (zero); bromoform (zero);

dibromochloromethane (0.06 mg/L). Chloroform is regulated with this group but has
no MCLG.
• Haloacetic acids: dichloroacetic acid (zero); trichloroacetic acid (0.3 mg/L).
Monochloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid are regulated with
this group but have no MCLGs.

7
MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.

8
Lead and copper are regulated by a Treatment Technique that requires systems to control
the corrosiveness of their water. If more than 10% of tap water samples exceed the action
level, water systems must take additional steps. For copper, the action level is 1.3 mg/L,
and for lead is 0.015 mg/L.

9
Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or
manufacturer's certification) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking
water systems, the combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed
the levels specified, as follows:

• Acrylamide = 0.05% dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent)

• Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary standards) are non-
enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects (such as
skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking
water. EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not require
systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards.

Contaminant Secondary Standard

Aluminum 0.05 to 0.2 mg/L

Chloride 250 mg/L

Color 15 (color units)

Copper 1.0 mg/L

Corrosivity noncorrosive

Fluoride 2.0 mg/L

Foaming Agents 0.5 mg/L

Iron 0.3 mg/L

Manganese 0.05 mg/L

Odor 3 threshold odor number

pH 6.5-8.5

Silver 0.10 mg/L

Sulfate 250 mg/L

Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L

Zinc 5 mg/L

Source: EPA 816-F-02-013

According to recent news and reports, most tap and well water in the U.S. are not safe for
drinking due to heavy industrial and environmental pollution. Toxic bacteria, chemicals and
heavy metals routinely penetrate and pollute our natural water sources making people sick
while exposing them to long term health consequences such as liver damage, cancer and
other serious conditions. We have reached the point where all sources of our drinking water,
including municipal water systems, wells, lakes, rivers, and even glaciers, contain some
level of contamination. Even some brands of bottled water have been found to contain high
levels of contaminants in addition to plastics chemical leaching from the bottle.
A good water filtration system installed in your home is the only way to proactively monitor
and ensure the quality and safety of your drinking water. Reverse osmosis water purification
systems can remove 90-99% of all contaminants from city and well water to deliver healthy
drinking water for you and your family

WHAT ARE THE STANDARDS FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER

It is known that no one method of filtering or purifying water is going to eliminate 100% of
elements from our drinking water. That said, water can be safe and acceptable, within
reason. There are guidelines, set by the U.S. EPA, which measure water standards to make
sure our water is safe.

'Acceptable' contamination levels of water are measured by two standards: maximum

contaminant level (MCL) and maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG). For the list of
individual contaminant standards, please click here.

The goal indicates the level of contaminant at or below which is considered safe for human
consumption. However, given the size of most water systems, today's technological
limitations, and the costs involved with water purification, it is impossible to provide the
masses with water at or below goal level for all contaminants.

Because of these difficulties, the MCL standard was created as a compromise between public
safety and feasibility, dictating levels that must be met before water is distributed to the
public. This level is usually within 5% of acceptable contaminant range.

Post-Filtration Contaminants

Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water, and an indication of filtration

effectiveness. Cloudy water is a sign of the presence of microorganisms that can cause
gastrointestinal illness. Although controlled at the original filtration source, soil runoff and
other factors can affect turbidity levels by the time water reaches a faucet.

The pipelines that transport water from its original purification source to homes and
businesses can affect certain contaminant levels. These include: vinyl chloride, known to
increase the risk of cancer (goal level is 0; actual level is 0.02%); lead, which causes high
blood pressure and kidney disease in adults and developmental delays in children (goal level
is 0; actual level is 0.015 mg/L); copper, which contributes to gastrointestinal disease in the
short-term and liver/kidney damage in the long-term (goal/actual level of 1.3 mg/L); and
cadmium, known to cause kidney damage (goal/actual level of 0.005 mg/L).

Other factors can further contaminate water between its original purification and
consumption. Fertilizer runoff and leaching from septic tanks can cause increased levels of
nitrite (goal/actual level of 1 mg/L) and nitrate (goal/actual level of 10 mg/L), both of which
are lethal to infants younger than six months. Water storage tank liners leak small amounts
of benzoapyrene (goal level is 0; actual level is 0.0002 mg/L), which can cause reproductive
complications and increased cancer risk.
The Effects of Disinfectants

Disinfectants to remove contaminants can also be harmful to humans in and of themselves.

Use of disinfectants has led to the development of two additional water safety standards:
maximum residual disinfectant level (MRDL) and maximum residual disinfectant level goal
(MRDLG).

Just as with contaminant level standards, it is not always realistic to reach the residual
disinfectant goal. In response, the MRDL offers a balance between human safety and
available purification resources.

Disinfectants and their byproducts found in water include bromate, known to increase the
risk of developing cancer (goal level is 0; actual level is 1%) and chlorite, which can cause
nervous system damage in children as well as anemia (goal level is 0.8 mg/L; actual level is
1.0 mg/L).

Although there is a set standard for national water safety, individual standards may vary by
state, county, and facility.

31. The Bottled Water Purification Process

A trip to the local grocery store and a walk
down the beverage aisle will reveal dozens of
varieties of bottled water. From big, two
gallon jugs with spouts to mini bottles that
can fit in a lunch box, there are kinds galore.
But many may take for granted to process
that takes place to get that water from the
source, safely into the bottle and into our
lives.

Bottled water, often called drinking water, is

usually bottled at the source and sealed in
safe drinking containers. There are many
types of bottled water, held inside many types
of unique shaped bottles. It seems the fancier
the bottle, the more expensive the water
inside. Let's take a look at the kinds of bottled
water available:

--Spring water: this comes from an underground formation and must flow naturally to the
earth's surface or through a sanitary borehole.

--Purified drinking water: this type of water has been processed to remove chlorine and a
majority of dissolved solids, such as magnesium. The source is not required to be named
unless it is untreated public source of water.

--Naturally sparkling water: this is naturally carbonated from a spring or artesian well.

--Seltzer Water: the FDA regulates this as a soft drink, which means rules are less strict
than those for bottled water.

--Mineral water: typically from a spring, this contains dissolved solids like calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium, silica and bicarbonates.

Bottled water, some say, is not always safer than tap water. Tap water, from city water
systems, is monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency, while the FDA monitors
water bottling activity. In fact, bottled water is one of the products most closely monitored
by the FDA. The standards for these two agencies is a little different; for example, the EPS
monitors for asbestos while the FDA does not. Water bottlers are also not very strictly
required to monitor or disinfect for parasites. This is mainly because the FDA says that at
the source the water is bottled from, it is unlikely to harbor parasites or contain these
dangerous elements. However, water bottlers are given more strict standards for lead and
chlorine.

But, there is more than just the FDA. Bottled water is actually monitored at three levels to
ensure high quality and safety standards, the first being federal through the FDA. It is also
regulated by the state and also by trade associations such as the International Water
Bottlers Association (IBWA). While every water bottler has different techniques, here are
some general guidelines of the steps to bottling water:
Bottling water starts at the source. As mentioned above, there are several sources to find
water: protected underground springs, wells and municipal supplies. The next step is to
filter the water through multi-barrier sources which could included source protections,
source monitoring, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet light, distillation, micron filtration and
ozonation. Water bottlers may use one or more of those processes.

All of this must meet those federal guidelines drawn up by the FDA. These include good
manufacturing practices, sanitary facilities and operations, quality standards, labeling
standards and quality production controls and processes. States will also regulate via
inspections of both the source and the production facility, and this varies greatly from state
to state. Finally, the processes must meet industry standards, which are stricter than the
FDA. Kind of a self-monitoring, if you will. The IBWA states that it maintains its own set of
standards, where all members are subject to an annual, unannounced plant inspection by a
nationally recognized third-party organization. Not all water bottlers are members of this
trade organization, but more than 80% of water does come from member companies. It
may be best to drink water from a IBWA member, as this process has three agencies
watching, rather than just two.Now that we know a little about the process and regulations,
let's look at the process a little closer on specific types of water. Yes. The process is a little
more complicated than filling a bottle and capping it. In fact, deciding to carry bottled water
requires much insight, with two major considerations being water source and what
equipment will be used to produce it.

Source: The source of water plays a key role in the quantity and quality of water one wants
to produce, as well as to remain profitable. About a quarter of all bottled water comes from
municipal supplies, with the rest coming from natural sources like springs and wells. But,
regardless of where the water is flowing from, is privy to all the aforementioned testing
from the agencies. One thing to take into consideration is what and organics and inorganic
compounds are present at the source, and if it is practical or not to invest in equipment to
remove them.

Equipment: Who wants water that is not clear, smells funny and tastes weird? The organic
compounds, like metal ions, in water can contribute to these things. So, the processes
mentioned above can help literally clear up the water. To reiterate, these are some of the
processes: Membrane filtration can remove organic impurities, metal and other ions.
Ozonization can break down organic constituents and reduce their odor potential while also
sanitizing to minimize further microbial contamination. But, whichever filtration system is
chosen, the plant will be built to spec.

The two biggest selling types of bottled water are spring water and purified water. And,
although the end result may taste the same, the processes of filtering are quite different.
With spring water, the source must be an actual spring. The label must say so. And, the
spring must be able to sustain the water production to make the choice to bottle it from
there an economical choice. Not that would should be talking about beer in a water
informational article, but you often hear in commercials that the beer is made with water
from the Rocky Mountain springs. A typical spring water treatment process includes a
filtration system that generally runs in series5-micron filtration to 0.2-micron filtration. After
the filtration process, the spring water is then usually treated with ozone to disinfect and
preserve the water in the bottle. By maintaining the nature of the spring water, ozone is
considered to be an acceptable disinfectant. Ozone oxidizes bacteria and organic materials
and, over time, reverts back to oxygen.
IS THE PH OF RO PERMEATE WATER LOWER THAN
THE FEEDWATESR PH?
This question is answered when you understand the equilibrium relationship between CO2,
HCO3, and CO3. In a closed system, the relative amount of each of dune compounds vary
with pH. At lower pH levels, CO2 is the predominant species. HCO3 is the predominant
species at mid pH levels, and CO3 is present at higher pH levels.

Since RO membranes will reject dissolved ions and not reject dissolved gases, the RO
permeate and RO feed will contain roughly the same amount of CO 2. The HCO3 and CO3,
however, are often reduced by 1-2 orders o£ magnitude. This upsets the
CO2, HCO3, CO3 equilibrium that was established in the feed, In a series of equilibrium
reactions, CO2 will combine with H2O driving reactions similar to that shown below, until a
new equilibrium Is established.

CO2 + H2OÂ -->Â HCO3 +Â H+

To summarize:

The new equilibrium will always result in a lowering of permeate pH if there is CO2 gas
present in the feed water.

Usually, the pH drop is largest for waters with high amounts of alkalinity or HCO3.

When there is very little CO2, HCO3, or CO3, there is very little pH drop observed in the
permeate.

Therefore it is not true that reverse osmosis filters will always reduce the pH level of
water to a noticeable amount. The pH difference after the RO depends on the composition of
your input water source; depends on whether you have large amounts of gases such as
CO2Â in your local water supply. If you are concerned with the pH of your drinking water,
you should avoid guess work and get your water tested with an accurate pH tester meter
(avoid those $10 paper testing strips, very inaccurate with pH readings). If you see that
your pH is indeed below 7 with a good amount, you can consider putting a pH increaser
filter as a final stage of your reverse osmosis system and correct acid water problem easily.

Some countries have regulations governing the pH of drinking water. Typically, the pH is
recommended to be in the6.5-9.0 range. It is our understanding that the purpose of these
pH regulations are to minimize corrosion of pipingmaterials so that metals like lead and
copper do not dissolve into the drinking water supply.

Purified water is the most highly treated and closely regulated bottled water product by the
FDA and IBWA, but also offers the most consistent and highest quality water to the
consumer. It is noted that consumers of bottled water prefer the taste of purified water over
other types. Bottlers say the consistent flavor is a result of the purification process. There
are three primary processes used to produce purified water: deionization, distillation
and reverse osmosis. Most bottlers choose RO over the others because of the many
advantages, including reduced cost and increased performance. Some of these advantages
also include removing nearly all organic compounds and up to 99% of ions and it rejects
99% of viruses, bacteria and fever producing substances. Also, RO is more energy efficient.

So the next time you pick a case of water off the shelf, look closer at the label. Now that
you have read up on the process, you can tell the difference between the identical-looking
fluids. You will know where it came from, how it was regulated, how it was purified and
which is the safest. To bottle water at home, reverse osmosis filters can be purchased which
will save money in the long run, as the average American spends over $300 per year on
bottled water

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN WATER

Ionic Contaminants and Other Contaminants in Solution and
Suspended Contaminants
As we learned previously, many dissolved inorganic water contaminants or impurities exist
as ions in solution, the most common of these ions are:

Cations Anions
Calcium Ca+ + Bicarbonate HC09Â

Magnesium Mg++ Chloride Cl

Sodium Na+ Sulfate SO,-Â

Iron Fe+ + Nitrate NO,Â

Manganese Mn+ + Carbonate CO,_ _

These electrically charged dissolved particles make ordinary natural water a good conductor
of electricity. Coversely, pure water has a high electrical resistance, and resistance is
frequently used as a measure of its purity.

Since only a few of these most common ionic water contaminants are health related, most
natural water supplies are safe to drink from the standpoint of dissolved inorganic chemical
contaminants. However, even though found more rarely -- and in much smaller quantities --
certain inorganic ions can be toxic. These contaminants are listed, along with their
maximum allowable levels in the summary, which also includes maximum levels for
radiological ionic contaminants, maximum levels for water turbidity (cloudiness), and
maximum levels for coliform bacteria (which indicate the presence of human or animal fecal
contamination). Turbidity and bacteria are examples of suspended water contaminants.
In addition, water supplies can contain dissolved organic chemical contaminants which are
usually pollutants that enter water as a result of man's activities, such as insecticides,
pesticides and herbicides. These are usually chronically, rather than acutely, toxic to man
and other species in extremely small amounts. The trihalomethanes are dissolved organic
contaminants, such as chloroform, which are formed in extremely small amounts by the
reaction of chlorine used to disinfect water, with humic and fulvic acids from soil erosion.
Other organics can enter both surface and groundwater through waste dumping, such as
trichlorethylene, tetrachlorethylene (TCEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxin, etc.
Many of the organic contaminants are probably carcinogenic (cancer-producing). The
organics do not necessarily exist in water in the form of dissolved ions.

The Secondary Drinking Water Regulations control contaminants in drinking water that
primarily affect the aesthetic qualities of water. Several of these -- chloride, sulfate, copper,
iron, manganese, zinc, and total dissolved solids -- are ionized contaminants.

Color and odor are contaminants which cause objectionable sensory responses to the water.

pH is a measure of the acid or alkaline strength of a water supply and corrosivity refers to
the ability of a water supply to disintegrate pipes and containers

ALKALINITY OF DRINKING WATER EXPLAINED

Alkalinity of water may be due to the presence of one or more of a number of ions. These
include hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates. As discussed in previous articles,
hydroxide ions are always present in water, even if the concentration is extremely small.
However, significant concentrations of hydroxides are unusual in natural water supplies, but
may be present after certain types of treatment. Small amounts of carbonates are found in
natural water supplies in certain sections of the country, rarely exceeding 3 or 4 gpg. They
may also be found in water after treatment, such as lime soda ash softening. Bicarbonates
are the most common sources of alkalinity. Almost all natural supplies have a measurable
amount of this ion, ranging from 0 to about 50 gpg.

Alkalinity. The alkalinity of water may be defined as its capacity

neutralize acid. Alkali substances in water include hydroxides or b
They can be detected by their acrid taste and by the fact that the
red litmus paper to turn blue.
Phosphates and silicates are rarely found in natural supplies in concentrations significant in
the home. Compounds containing these ions may be used in a variety of water treatment
processes. Moderate concentrations of alkalinity are desirable in most water supplies to
balance the corrosive effects of acidity. However, excessive quantities cause a number of
problems. These ions are, of course, free in the water, but have their counterpart in cations
such as calcium, magnesium and sodium or potassium.

You probably will not notice an alkaline condition due to bicarbonate ions except when
present in large amounts. In contrast, you should readily detect alkalinity due even to fairly
small amounts of carbonate and hydroxide ions.

Strongly alkaline Waters have an objectionable "soda" taste. The EPA Secondary Drinking
Water Regulations limit alkalinity only in terms of total dissolved solids (500 ppm) and to
some extent by the limitation on pH.

Highly mineralized alkaline waters also cause excessive drying of the skin due to the fact
that they tend to remove normal skin oils.

Troublesome amounts of alkalinity can be removed by reverse osmosis, along with other
total dissolved solids. Other methods of water treatment remove total dissolved solids and
alkalinity, but they are somewhat less suitable for household use than reverse osmosis.
These methods are distillation and deionization (demineralization).

Several other methods of water treatment will remove alkalinity, but these methods are not
satisfactory for household use. They include:

1. Lime softening removes hardness. At the same time, this process will precipitate an
equivalent amount of alkalinity. Lime softening is usually restricted to industrial and
municipal installations.

Lime softening. While reducing total alkalinity, lime softening does convert HC03– to CO3--,
a stronger alkalinity ion.

2. An anion resin regenerated with sodium chloride removes substantially all the anions
(carbonates, bicarbonates, and sulfates, as well as nitrates). It replaces these anions with a
chemically equivalent amount of chloride ions. The disadvantage of this process is that in
almost all cases a high chloride ion concentration results. At the point of exhaustion, the
resin has the tendency to unload high concentrations of the anions it carries including the
nitrates. For household purposes, such results are almost as undesirable as the original
alkalinity.

3. The feed of a mineral acid will neutralize the alkalinity of a water. Hydrochloric acid,
sulfuric acid or a combination of these can be used. This process converts the bicarbonates
and carbonates present into carbonic acid. At this point, it is advisable to provide some
method to permit the resulting carbon dioxide gas to escape into the atmosphere. The
disadvantages of this acid feed technique are obvious. There are needs for precise control of
the process and caution in handling the strong acid.
DRINKING WATER CONTAMINANTS AND THEIR CONTROL
WITH REVERSE OSMOSIS WATER TREATMENT
Nominal Rejection Performance for Reverse Osmosis Membranes
at 60 psi Net Pressure and 77° F.1

TFC* type
membrane
Rejection

Sodium 90-95% 1. This table of nominal rejection performance is for reverse

Calcium 93-98% osmosis membranes used in drinking water systems operating at
Magnesium 93-98% a net pressure (feed pressure less back pressure and osmotic
Potassium 90-95% pressure) of 60 psi and 77° F water temperature.
Iron 2 93 98%
Manganese 2 93-98% The actual performance of systems incorporating these
Aluminum 93-98% membranes may be different due to changes in feed pressure,
Copper 94-99% temperature, water chemistry. contaminant level, net pressure on
Nickel 93-98% membrane, and individual membrane efficiency. Countertop RO
Zinc 93-98% drinking water systems produce better overall rejection
Strontium 93-98% performance than undercounter systems due to maximizing of net
Cadmium 93-98% pressure on membrane.
Silver 93-98%
Mercury 93-98% 2. While iron and manganese are effectively removed by the
Barium 93-98% membrane, they also can easily foul its surface with deposits even
Chromium-6 94-99% at low concentrations. Generally, iron and manganese should be
Chromium-3 94-99% removed by other water treatment methods prior to RO
Lead 94-99% treatment.
Chloride 90-95%
Bicarbonate 90-95%
3. Nitrate removal depends on factors such as pH, temperature,
Nitrate3 85-90%
net pressure across membrane. and other contaminants present.
Fluoride 90-97%
Phosphate 93-98%
Chromate 90-95%
Cyanide 90-95%
Sulfate 93-98%
Boron 55-60%
Arsenic + 3 70-80%
Arsenic + 5 94-99%
Selenium 93-98%
Radioactivity 93-98%
----------- --------

Bacteria > 99%

Protozoa > 99%
Ameobic- Cysts > 99%
Giardia
Asbestos > 99%
Sediment/ > 99%
Turbidity > 99%
> 99%
Organic
Contaminants
Organic > 99%
molecules with
a molecular
weight < 300

*TFC-Thin Film Composite Membrane

This information is extracted from the Water Quality Association WQA.

What is ultrafiltration (UF) in terms of membrane filter technology?

Ultrafiltration (UF) is a variety of membrane filtration in which hydrostatic pressure forces a
liquid against a semipermeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular
weight are retained, while water and low molecular weight solutes pass through the
membrane. This separation process is used in industry and research for purifying and
concentrating macromolecular (103 - 106 Da) solutions, especially protein solutions.
Ultrafiltration is not fundamentally different from reverse osmosis, microfiltration or
nanofiltration, except in terms of the size of the molecules it retains.

A membrane or, more properly, a semipermeable membrane, is a thin layer of material

capable of separating substances when a driving force is applied across the membrane.
Once considered a viable technology only for desalination, membrane processes are
increasingly employed for removal of bacteria and other microorganisms, particulate
material, and natural organic material, which can impart color, tastes, and odors to the
water and react with disinfectants to form disinfection byproducts (DBP). As advancements
are made in membrane production and module design, capital and operating costs continue
to decline. The pressure-driven membrane processes discussed in this fact sheet are
microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO).

The primary advantages of low-pressure UF membrane processes compared with

conventional clarification and disinfection (postchlorination) processes are:

• No need for chemicals (coagulants, flocculates, disinfectants, pH adjustment);

• Size-exclusion filtration as opposed to media depth filtration;
• Good and constant quality of the treated water in terms of particle and microbial
removal;
• Process and plant compactness; and
• Simple automation.

Ultrafiltration (UF) is used to remove essentially all colloidal particles (0.01 to 1.0 microns)
from water and some of the largest dissolved contaminants. The pore size in a UF
membrane is mainly responsible for determining the type and size of contaminants
removed. In general, membrane pores range in size from 0.005 to 0.1 micron. UF
membrane manufacturers classify each UF product as having a specific molecular weight
cutoff (MWC), which is a rough measurement of the size of contaminants removed by a
given UF membrane. A 100,000 MWC UF membrane means that when water containing a
given standard compound with a molecular weight of around 100,000 daltons is fed to the
UF unit, nearly all of the compound will not pass through the membrane.

Substances with a molecular weight of 100,000 daltons have a size of about 0.05 microns to
about 0.08 microns in diameter. UF membranes are used where essentially all colloidal
particles (including most pathogenic organisms) must be removed, but most of the
dissolved solids may pass through the membrane without causing problems downstream or
in the finished water. UF will remove most turbidity from water.