Unit - 2

Cut Sets and Cut Vertices:

Fundamental circuits and cut sets:

Edge connectivity:

Vertex Connectivity:

Separable Graphs:

Planar Graphs:

Kuratwoski’s graphs:

Different representations of Planar graphs:

Incidence Matrix A:

Circuit Matrix B:

Fundamental Circuit Matrix:

Cut set Matrix C:

Relationship between A, B and C:

Path Matrix:

Adjacency Matrix:
Planar Graphs:

A graph G is said to be planar if it can be written on a plane such that no two of its edges
intersect anywhere other then the end vertex. Such a representation of planar graph is
called planar embedding. This planar embedding need not be unique.

Detection of Planarity:

Step 1:
Since the graph in planar if and only if each of its components is planar, it is
sufficient to check for each component. Hence for each component of G go to step 2.

Step 2:
Each graph is planar if and only if each of its block is planar. Hence for each
block of G do the step 3.

Step 3:
Between two vertices if it is possible to write an edge without crossing with each
other, then it is also possible to write more edges between the same pair of vertices
without crossing one another. Hence parallel edges of self-loops do not affect the
planarity. Eliminate edges in parallel by removing all but one edge between pair of
vertex goes to step 4.

Step 4:
Remove all self-loops.

Step 5:
Two edges are said to be in series if they have exactly one vertex of degree two in
common. Merging two parallel edges does not affect the planarity. Therefore eliminate
all edges in series.

Repeated application of the above steps yields one of the following (p, q) graphs
1. a single edge or
2. a complete graph on four vertices or
3. A non-separable, simple graph with p  5 and q  7 .

If the graph obtained after the deduction is 1 or 2, then it is planar. If it is 3, then it

should satisfy (k-2) q  k (p-2).
Example 1:

Check for the planarity of the following graph by the method of elementary
transformation.

Solution:

Step 1:
Does not apply, because the graph is connected.

Step 2:
Separating the blocks of G.

Step 3:
Removing self – loops and parallel edges.
Step 4: Merging the series edges.

Step 5: Again removing the parallel edges

The final graph contains three components. Largest component contains 5 vertices.
Other two are K2 and K3. We know that K2 and K3 are planar. We need to verify only
the largest component. If we observe the largest component, it does not contain a graph
isomorphic to K5 or K3, 3. Therefore this block is also planar.

INCIDENCE MATRIX:

Let G be a (p , q) graph without self loops. We define an incidence matrix A = [aij] of

order p x q as :

1 , if an edge e j incident on the vertex vi in G

aij   .
0 , otherwise

Example 1:

Let G be a graph with the vertex set V (G )  v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5  and

E(G)  e1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 4 , e 5 , e 6  . Let the diagrammatic representation of G be as follows.
G:
v1 e1 v2 e5 v5

e4 e2
e6

v4 e3 v3

The incidence matrix of the graph G is given by

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6
v1 1 0 0 1 0 0
v2 1 1 0 0 1 0
A  v3  0 1 1 0 0 1
 
v 4 0 0 1 1 0 0
v5 0 0 0 0 1 1 

Example 2:

Let G be a graph with the vertex set V (G )  v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 and

E(G)  e1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 4 , e 5 , e 6 , e7 , e8 . Let the diagrammatic representation of G be as
follows.
v3 v6
G:
e1
e8 e2

e5
v2 v4

e6 e7 e3

v1 e4 v5
The incidence matrix of the graph G is given by
e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 e8
v1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
v2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
v 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
A 3 
v 4 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
v5 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
 
v6 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Observations on incidence matrix:

1. We have each edge containing two end vertices (say x and y). Therefore each
column contains 1’s in exactly two places (in rows x and y).

2. The number 1 each row represents the edge incident form the vertex
corresponding to the row. Therefore the sum of 1’s in each row represent the
degree (the number of edges incident with the vertex) of a vertex corresponds to
the row.

3. A row with all zeros represents an isolated vertex.

4. If a row contains 1’s in exactly one place, then the vertex corresponds to the row
is a pendent vertex and the edge corresponds to the column at which 1 appear is a
pendent edge.

5. Incidence matrix of every disconnected graph can be written as

 A(G1 ) 0   0 
 0 A(G2 )   0 

A(G )       
 
     
 0 0   A(Gk ) 

where A(Gi ) represents the incidence matrix of ith component of G. Such

representation is called block diagram form of A(G).

6. Two identical columns in an incidence matrix correspond to the parallel edges

(because its end vertices are same)

7. Permutation of any two rows corresponds to the rearrangement of the vertices of

G.

8. Permutation of any two columns represents the re-labeling of the edges of G.

9. Two graphs are isomorphic if and only if the permutation of columns and/or rows
of the incidence matrix of the other can obtain the incidence matrix of one graph.

10. The rank of an incidence matrix of a connected simple graph of order n is n-1.
# Verify that the rank of the incidence matrix of the following graph G is one less
than the order of G.
1 2

3 4 5
Solution:

The order of the given graph G is n = 5. The incidence of the matrix is given by
1 1 0 0 0  1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0  0  1 1 0 0 
   
A(G )  0 1 0 1 0 ~ 0 1 0 1 0  ( R 2  R1  R2 )
   
0 0 1 1 0  0 0 1 1 0 
0 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 0 1 

1 1 0 0 0
0  1 1 0 0 
 
~ 0 0 1 1 0  ( R 3  R2  R3 )
 
0 0 1 1 0 
0 0 0 0 1 
1 1 0 0 0
0  1 1 0 0 
 
~ 0 0 1 1 0  ( R 4  R3  R4 )
 
0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 1 

The rank of the incidence matrix = 4 = n-1.

CIRCUIT MATRIX:

Let G be a (p , q) graph having k number of circuits. Then we define a circuit matrix

B(G) = [bij] of order k x q as

1 , if i th circuit includes j th edge and

bij   .
0 , otherwise

Example 1:
Let G be a graph with the vertex set V (G )  v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5  and
E(G)  e1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 4 , e 5 , e 6  . Let the diagrammatic representation of G be as follows.
G:
v1 e1 v2 e5 v5

e4 e2
e6

v4 e3 v3
The circuits of G are:

C1: v1 – e1 – v2 – e2 – v3 – e3 – v4 – e4 – v1
C2: v2 – e5 – v5 – e6 – v3 – e2 – v2
C3: v1 – e1 – v2 – e5 – v5 – e6 – v3 – e3 – v4 – e4 – v1.

Therefore the circuit matrix of G is given by

1 1 1 1 0 0 
B(G )  0 1 0 0 1 1 
1 0 1 1 1 1 

Example 2:

Let G be a graph with the vertex set V (G )  v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5  and

E(G)  e1 , e 2 , e 3 , e 4 , e 5 , e 6  . Let the diagrammatic representation of G be as follows.

G:
v1 e1 v2

e4 e2
e5

v4 e3 v3

The circuits of G are:

C1: v1 – e1 – v2 – e2 – v3 – e3 – v4 – e4 – v1.
C2: v1 – e1 – v2 – e2 – v3 – e5 – v1.
C3: v1 – e4 – v4 – e3 – v3 – e5 – v1.

Therefore the circuit matrix of G is given by

e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
c1 1 1 1 1 0
B(G )  c2 1 1 0 0 1
c3 0 0 1 1 1

Observations on Circuit Matrix:

1. A column having all zero entries corresponds to a bridge of G.

2. Each row of B(G) is a circuit vector.

3. A row having exactly one 1’s in it corresponds to a self loop.

4. The number of 1’s in a row is equal to the length of the corresponding circuit.

5. Every circuit matrix of G can be written in the form

 B (G1 ) 0   0 
 0 B (G 2 )   0 

B (G )       
 
     
 0 0   B (Gk ) 

Where B(Gi ) denote the matrix corresponding to the i th block Gi of G.

6. Permutation of any two rows corresponds to the relabeling of circuits of G.

7. Permutation of any two columns corresponds to the relabeling of edges of G.

8. Two graphs have the same circuit matrix if and only if there exists a circuit
correspondence between the graphs.

9. For any graph G, A(G )B (G )T  B(G )A(G )T =0(mod2), whenever the
columns are arranged in the same order.
# Verify the rank of circuit matrix of the following (p, q) – graph shown in figure
below is q - p + 1 in (mod 2).

Solution:

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
B(G )  1 0 1 0 1 0 1 ~ 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 
  ( R2  R2  R1 )
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 
~ 0 0 0 1 1 1 0  ( R3  R3  R2 )
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Therefore rank of B(G) = 2.
Now, G contains 6 vertices and 7 edges, hence it is a (6,7) – graph. Consider q- p +1
= 7 -6 +1 = 2= B(G). Hence verified

Fundamental circuit Matrix:

Let G be a graph and T be a spanning tree of G. Then the submatrix of a circuit

matrix whose rows corresponds to all fundamental circuits of G is called fundamental
circuit matrix of G and is denoted by B f .

Example 1:

Consider the graph G. Let the T be a spanning tree of G.

(given in bold lines). a
Then the fundamental circuits are
(i) FC1: a – b – c – a ( due to chord ac)
c
(ii) FC2: c – b – d – c ( due to chord dc)
(iii) FC3: c – b – d – e – c (due to chord ce) b

Then the Fundamental circuit matrix is

d e
 ab bc bdde ac dc ce
FC1  1 1 0 0 1 0 0
B f (G )   0 1 1
FC 2  0 0 1 0
FC3  0 1 1 1 0 0 1
# Write down the fundamental circuit matrix B f for the graph of figure shown
below. Also express B f = [ I : Bt ] , by taking any spanning tree T of G.

Solution:

Let T be denoted by bold lines. Then the fundamental circuits are

a

b d

e c

Then the fundamental circuits are

FC1: a – b- c- d – a
FC2: b – c – f – e – b
FC3: c – f – e – c.

ab eb ec da bc cd cf fe
FC1  1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
B f  FC 2  0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 
FC 3  0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 

Adjacency Matrix

Let G be a p,q graph having no parallel edges. Then adjacency matrix X  [ xi j ] of

order pxp is defined as
 1 , if vi v j  E (G )
xi j  
0 , otherwise

Observation of Adjacency Matrix:

1. The adjacency matrix of a graph is a symmetric binary matrix.

2. Diagonal elements of X(G) are all zero if and only if G does not have a loop.

3. We get no information about the parallel edges , thus we avoid parallel edges
in the definition of X(G).

4. Number of vertices having self loop equal to number of 1’s in the diagonal
entries.

5. Permutation of rows or coloumns corresponds to the relabeling of vertices.

6. If two rows are interchanged then corresponding columns are also

interchanged.

7. For every symmetric square binary matrix X there always a graph G such that
X(G) = x.

8. ijth entry of [X(G)]m gives number of walks of length m from ith vertex to the
jth vertex in the graph G.

9. Number of 1’s in a row gives the degree of the vertex corresponds to the row
counting diagonal elements twice. In general, deg (v) = number of 1’s in a off
diagonal row + 2 x diagonal entry.

10. X(G) can be written in block – diagonal form as

 X (G1 ) 0   0 
 0 X (G 2 )   0 

     
X (G )   
     
 
 0 0  
 X (Gk ) 