CHAPTER 2: TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow in Pipes

• Re > 4000
• Random movements of eddies which mixes up the layers
of fluid
• Particle path is irregular
• Most common type of flow
• Difficult mathematical analysis to describe the flow

Turbulent Shear Stress

Random 3-dimensional fluid motions (eddies) produce shear
force for the turbulent flow

3-dimensional eddies conveys mass with average velocity ū.

Therefore flow momentum exists. The result of this momentum
transfer is shear force

Shear stress in pipe is given as the summation of laminar shear

stress and turbulent shear stress

τ = τlam + τturb
Laminar shear stress is dominant near the pipe wall and the
turbulent shear stress dominates the flow at center of pipe.

The prevailing equations regarding shear stress we obtained for

laminar flow in pipes can also be used for turbulent flows in
pipes. i.e:

τ w = ΔPD 4l and τ = 2τ wr D

The region where laminar shear force dominates is called the

viscous sub-layer or the viscous wall layer.

The region where turbulent shear force dominates is called the

outer turbulent layer or simply the outer layer.

There is also a region where both laminar and shear are

important. This region is called the overlap region.

The character of the each layers such as their velocity are

different, so we need different equations to describe them.
In viscous sub-layer, velocity profile is written in the form of

u yu *
= ...(1)
u* ν

where ū = average velocity

y = distance measured from wall =R – r
u* = friction velocity = (τw /ρ)1/2
υ = kinematic viscosity

This equation is called the Law of Wall which is valid only near
yu*
a smooth wall for 0< <5
ν

In the overlap region, velocity varies according to the logarithm

of y.

u ⎛ yu* ⎞
= 2.5 ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 5.0 ...(2 )
u* ⎝ ν ⎠

where 2.5 and 5.0 are constants determined by experiments.

For the outer layer, the Power Law is used from the following
expression.
1
*The power law profile cannot
u ⎛ r⎞
...(3 )
n
= ⎜1 − ⎟ be valid near the wall because
VC ⎝ R⎠ the value becomes infinite if
we differentiate u with r
(du/dr).

The value of n which indicates the “power” of the equation is a

function of Re and determined experimentally.
The relationship between average velocity, volume flowrate and
centerline velocity can be obtained by integrating the power law
velocity profile.
R
Q = ∫ udA
0
1
R
⎛ r⎞ n
= ∫ VC ⎜ 1 − ⎟ dA
0 ⎝ R⎠
1
R
⎛ r ⎞n
=∫ VC ⎜ 1 − ⎟ 2πr.dr
0 ⎝ R⎠
n2
= 2πR VC
2
...(4 )
(n + 1)(2n + 1)

since Q = AV = ππ 2V

πR 2V n2
=
2πR 2VC (n + 1)(2n + 1)
V 2n 2
=
VC (n + 1)(2n + 1)
VC =
(n + 1)(2n + 1)V ...(5 )
2n 2
Example 2.1

Water at 20oC (ρ = 998 kg/m3 , υ = 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s) flows

through horizontal pipe of D = 0.1m and Q = 4 x 10-2 m3/s. If
the pressure drop over the length of pipe is 2.5 kPa/m,
determine:-

(a) the approximate thickness of viscous sub-layer

(b) the approximate centerline velocity
(c) the ratio of the turbulent to laminar shear stress τ turb
τ lam at
a point midway between centerline and the pipe wall (r =
0.025)
Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow

Moody Chart

Pressure drop & head loss of pipes are dependent on τw between

fluid and the pipe surface.

Shear of turbulent flow is a function of fluid density and

viscosity.

Shear stress of laminar flow is independent of fluid density. It is

only dependent on viscosity.

In a functional form, ∆p for incompressible turbulent in a

horizontal circular pipe with diameter D can be written as:

∆p = F (V, D, l, ε, μ, ρ)

where, V - average velocity

D - diameter of pipe
l - length of pipe
ε - equivalent roughness of pipe wall
μ - dynamic viscosity
ρ - density of fluid

This can be written in dimensionless form

Δp ⎛ ρVD l ε ⎞ ρVD
= φ ⎜⎜ , , ⎟
μ D D ⎟⎠
1 ρV 2 - Reynolds Number
2 ⎝ μ
ε
- relative roughness
D
Now let’s look at the effect of surface roughness...

We know that the viscous layer is very thin (δs/D << 1 where δs
is the thickness of the layer). If the wall is rough, the elements
on the surface of the wall protrudes far into this layer/ or
through the layer thus destroying the structure of the sub-layer.

So the properties of the sub-layer including ∆p and τw will be

affected.

For laminar flows, the viscous effects are important throughout

the entire cross section of pipe (viscous sub-layer does not exist)

On the other hand, for turbulent flow the viscous sub-layer has
significant importance especially at high Re.

We have seen before that:

l ρV 2
Δp = f ...(6 ) - Darcy Friction Factor
D 2

where f - friction factor

l - length of pipe
D - diameter
ρ - density of fluid
V - average velocity

We also know that for laminar flows, f = 64/Re. This means

that pressure drop is only dependent on Re.
But, for turbulent flows:

⎛ ε ⎞
f = φ ⎜ Re, ⎟
⎝ D⎠

which indicates that pressure drop depends on both Re and

relative roughness.

When we apply the energy equation for steady incompressible

flow in horizontal pipes,
2 2
p1 V p V
+ α 1 + z 1 = 2 + α 2 + z 2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

where hL is head loss between the two locations.

Since the flow is steady, fully developed and horizontal,

(D1 = D2, α1 = α2 and z1 = z2). So we have,

∆p = p1 – p2 = γhL

Substituting in eq. (6), we get

l V2
γhL = f
D 2g
l ρV 2
hL = f
D 2γ
l V2
hL = f ...(7 )
D 2g
This equation is called the Darcy-Weisbach Equation.
For inclined pipes,

p1 − p 2 = γ ( z 2 − z 1 ) + γh L
l ρV 2
Δp = γ (z 2 − z 1 ) + f ...(8 )
D 2

Elevation Friction
Effects Effects

The Darcy-Weisbach equation for friction loss is valid for:

• fully developed flow in pipe
• steady
• incompressible
• horizontal or inclined

Normally for pipe analysis, we obtain the dependence of friction

factor on Re & ε/D through the Moody Chart.

To construct this chart the equivalent roughness ε is usually

obtained for ‘clean’ and new pipes because after considerable
use, most pipes may have increased roughness.

For high Re flows, the viscous sub-layer is so thin that the

surface roughness completely dominates the character of flow
near the walls.

For smooth pipes (ε = 0), we notice that friction factor (f) is not
zero because there is still head loss. These pipes are called
“hydraulically smooth”.
The moody chart offers the relationships between ε/D, f and Re
for a very wide range of pipe flows including that for laminar
flows as long as the flow is steady, fully developed and
incompressible.

The Moody chart is useful because in real applications, a large

variety of D, V, ρ and μ exists but only for small ranges win the
Moody chart.

Moody Chart

The Moody chart is valid for all steady, fully developed,

incompressible pipe flows.
Another method of measuring the friction factor for turbulent
flow in pipes is by using the Blasius formula which is obtained
through empirically.

The Blasius formula is given as:-

0.316
f = 1
...(9)
Re 4

Example 2.2

Water flows through a horizontal cast iron pipe with diameter

0.05m with an average velocity of 0.1m/s.

a) If the certain measures were taken to maintain a laminar

flow, determine the pressure drop in 5m section of the
pipe.
b) Determine the pressure drop along 5m of the pipe for a
turbulent flow using the Moody chart and the Blasius
formula and compute the percentage of difference from
the values obtained.
Minor Losses

As fluid flows through a pipe, it loses energy in the direction of

flow.

These energy lost consist of two types

• Friction loss
• Minor loss

Total loss is the sum of friction and minor losses.

Friction loss is caused by friction at walls and due to the

resistance of fluid particles as they roll, rub and slide each other.

Minor losses are due to the geometry of pipes such as the

presence of valves and fittings such as elbows, tees, bends etc.

In pipeline designs, energy loss doe to friction dominates pipes

that are longer than 30 meters or greater.

For short lengths, minor losses might be equal or even greater

that friction losses.

Minor losses are commonly expressed in terms of velocity head.

In equation form

V2
h = KL ...(10)
2g
where, KL - loss coefficient
Here,

hL Δp
KL = =
⎛⎜V 2 ⎞⎟ 1 ρV 2
2
⎝ 2g ⎠

Minor loss KL may vary depending on the shapes involved.

Here are a few examples…

Entrance loss
- head loss when liquid enters pipe from a large
tank/reservoir

Re-entrant Sharp Edge

KL = 0.8 KL = 0.5

Slightly Rounded Well Rounded

KL = 0.2-0.25 KL = 0.05
Exit loss
- head loss produced when liquid leaves pipe and enters a
large tank/reservoir
- the entire kinetic energy of exiting fluid (V1) is dissipated
through viscous effects and eventually becomes V2 = 0
- Exit loss from (1) to (2) is equivalent to one velocity head
- KL = 1.0

Sudden expansion and contraction

- Losses that occur where there is a sudden increase in pipe
diameter (expansion) or where there is a sudden decrease in
pipe diameter (contraction)

A1 A2 A1 A2

Sudden Expansion Sudden Contraction

1.0 0.5

KL KL

1.0 1.0
A1/A2 A2/A1

- loss coefficient is a function of are ratio A2/A1.

- A2/A1 = 0 KL = 0.5 - extreme sharp edge entrance
- A2/A1 = 0 KL = 0 - no area change
Vena Contracta

Consider fluid entering a sharp corner as shown in figure

Fluid cannot through sharp corners. At a sharp corner, the flow

will separate and reattaches at the pipe wall

This separation and reattachment forms a bubble (separation

bubble) making the area of fluid flow smaller than the actual
pipe area.

This causes the velocity of fluid passing through this small area
to increase

Maximum velocity exists at section with minimum area called

the vena contracta.

Because high speed flows cannot slow down efficiently, the

kinetic energy could not be fully converted into pressure.

(Losses occur )
Pumps

Pumps are used to increase energy of the fluid (liquid)

40% - 50% of industrial energy is used to drive pumps and

compressors

Proper design construction and selection of pumps are

economically significant.

One of the most common pipe is the centrifugal pipe.

It consist of rotating elements called impeller which is contained

within the pump housing

The shaft transfers mechanical energy to the impeller

A system pf bearings and seals are required to complete the

design

Flow enters the machine nearly axial at some radius through the
eye of the impeller and leaves radially outward

Energy is added to the fluid by rotating blades and both pressure

and absolute velocity are increased as fluid flows from eye to the
periphery of the blades

Fluid discharges into the housing which is designed to reduce

velocity
Types of pumps

a) Reciprocating pistons or plunger

b) Gear pump
c) Double screw pump
d) Sliding vane
e) Lobe pump
f) Differential piston
g) Flexible squeegee
Most of the analysis here will be carried out using the energy
equation
2 2
p1V p V
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
γ 2g γ 2g

This equation is valid only if:

• Incompressible flow
• There are no mechanical devices between two sections
(pumps, motors, turbines etc.)
• No energy loss due to friction
• No heat transfer

In reality, pumps cause losses. We can use the general energy

equation above to estimate the energy of flows involving the use
of pumps and motors.

Normally pumps are driven by electric motors, IC engines etc.

In short we can say that pump draws kinetic energy and delivers
it to the fluid

If we include energy of pump in the energy equation, we get:

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z 1 + hP = 2 + 2 + z 2 + hL ...(11)
γ 2g γ 2g

Where hp is the energy added to fluid and hL is the head loss

discussed earlier
Power Required by Pump

Power is the rate of work or the rate of which energy is being

transferred and is given by:

Power added to fluid:

P = γhpQ ...(12)

Unit: Watt, Nm/s or J/s

Efficiency of Pump

Defined as the ratio of power delivered by the pump to the fluid

to the power supplied to the pump

Not all the input power is delivered to the fluid. This is because
of the losses that occur due to:
• mechanical friction in the pump components
• fluid friction
• excessive fluid turbulence in the pump

Mechanical efficiency,
Power delivered to fluid P
ηM = = < 100%
Power given to pump Pi

For pumps used in hydraulic systems, ηM is usually 70% - 80%

ηM for centrifugal pumps ranges from 50% - 80%

Fluid Motors

Fluid motors, turbines, rotary actuators & linear actuators are

several examples of devices that take energy from fluid and
deliver it in the form of work causing rotation of a shaft or the
linear movement of a piston

If we include fluid motors in our energy equation:

2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z 1 + hP = 2 + 2 + z 2 + hL + hR ...(12 )
γ 2g γ 2g

Efficiency of Motor

Efficiency of fluid motor is given by:

Power output from motor PO

ηM = =
Power delivered by fluid P
Parameters Involved in Pump Selection

When selecting a pump for a particular application, the

following factors must be considered

• Nature of fluid
• Required capacity
• Conditions on the suction (inlet)
• Conditions at discharge (outlet)
• The total head on the pump
• The type of system to which the pump is delivering the
fluid
• The type of power source (electric motor, diesel engine,
steam turbine etc)
• Space, weight and position limitations
• Environmental conditions
• Cost of pump and installation
• Cost of pump operation
• Governing codes and standards
Cavitation

The fluid flow enters the pipe at a certain pressure and

temperature.

At a certain operating temperature, the fluid will vaporize if the

pressure is sufficiently low.

This vaporized fluid enters the pump in the form of bubbles.

In the pump, pressure is increased, so these bubbles will collapse

rapidly causing excessive noise, vibration.

This will increase wear and tear of the pump components such
as the blades of the pump.

So, don’t want cavitation laa..

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

So, the condition at the inlet of the pump is important. The

suction system must allow smooth flow of liquid to enter the
pump at a sufficiently high pressure to avoid creating vapor
bubbles in flow.

If pressure of fluid decreases, the bubbles are more likely to

occur because the temperature at which the bubbles are formed
also decreases

Therefore the pressure at inlet (suction pressure) should be well

above the pressure at which vaporization would occur for the
operating temperature of the fluid
This is called providing Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Normally, manufacturers supply data about the required NPSH

for each pump. For operation,

NPSHavailable > NPSHrequired

The value of NPSH is dependent on the:

• nature of the fluid
• piping at suction of pump
• location of reservoir
• pressure in the reservoir

NPSH = hsp ± hs – hf - hvp

hsp - static pressure head applied to the fluid (hsp = P/ρg)

hs - elevation difference
(+ve if pump is below reservoir)
(-ve if pump is above reservoir)
hf - friction losses in suction piping
hvp - vapor pressure of fluid at pumping temperature

Effect of Vapor Pressure

The pressure at which a liquid and vapor an exist at a given

temperature

If pressure of fluid entering pump is at vapor pressure, vapor

bubbles form throughout the flow (boiling)
This situation must be avoided to prevent cavitation as
previously discussed.

12

Vapor pressure (m)

0 T OC 100

Effect of Pump Speed

NPSHoperation = (N2 / N1)2 NPSHgiven

Conditions at new Catalog data

operating speed

Effect of Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure is the pressure at the free surface of fluid due to

the formation of a vapor

Temperature ↑, pressure ↑

Pressure inlet must stay above vapor pressure of fluid

Others

After pump selection, the following items must be specified:

1. Type of pump and manufacturer

2. Size of pump
3. Size of suction connection and type (flanged, screw-type
etc)
4. Size and type of discharge connection
5. Speed of operation
6. Specifications for driver (power, speed, voltage etc)
7. Types of coupling
8. Mounting details
9. etc

Normally manufacturers provide catalogs for the customer to

choose from…
Example 2.3

For the pump shown in figure, determine the mechanical

efficiency of the pump if the power input is measured to be
2871 Watts when pumping 0.0316 m3/s of oil
Given, s.gHg = 13.54, γoil = 8797 N/m3, γwater = 9.81 x 103)

Example 2.4

The volume flow rate through the pump shown in figure below
is 0.014 m3/s. The fluid being pumped is oil with a specific
gravity of 0.86. Calculate the energy delivered by the pump to
the oil per unit weight of oil flowing in the system. Energy losses
in the system are caused by the check valve and friction losses as
the fluid flows through the piping. The magnitude of such losses
has been determined as 1.86m. Power delivered to pump is
5.68kW. (γwater = 9.81 x 103)
Example 2.5

Determine NPSH for system shown in figure. Fluid reservoir is

a closed tank with pressure of 20kPa. Water temperature is 70oC.
Atmospheric pressure is 100.5kPa. The water level in the tank is
2.5m above pump inlet. The pipe is a 1 ½ in schedule-40 pipe
with total length of 12.0m and equivalent roughness ε = 4.6 x
10-5m