Piping Terminology;

1. Transmition pipelines: Usually long, relatively large diameter lines, May Tranport Hydrocarbon fluids and or Gas. from prudocing fields to
processing plant or refineries.. From plants and refiniries to marketing centers

2. Flowline: Two phase lines (Non separted HC with two phase (liquid and gas) flows before entering the inlet separator), connecting welss to
production manifolds. range from 2 - 20 inches.

3. Trunkline: Two or more well flowlines connected to a larger line that carries the combined well stream to the production manifold. range from 10
to 42 inches.

4. Injection lines: Transport high pressure gas or water to wellheads for injection into the producing formation. Fluids are injected for: Reservoir
pressure performance, production enhancements, conservation of gas, Gas Lift, Produced water disposal , waterflood, steam flood.

5. Piping / Plant (Facility) Piping (on plot) : Piping witihin the well defined boundaries of the processing plants, piping compression station or
pumping station. Used for a variety of fluids within those boundaries as required.

Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Overview
The forms listed below form the basis for verifying welding procedures and welder performance:

• WPS - welding procedure specification

• PQR - procedure qualification record
• WPQ - welder performance qualification

There are three steps in qualifying welders and welding procedure specifications to Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC).
First, prepare a welding procedure specification (WPS). The WPS must contain the minimum requirements that are specified by the
code. The WPS provides guidance for welding by specifying ranges for each variable.

Second, a procedure qualification record (PQR) is used to verify the WPS. The WPS is qualified by welding procedure qualification
test coupons. The variables and tests used are recorded on a PQR.

Third, the performance of the welders is verified by welding performance qualification test coupons. The variables and tests used
with the particular variable ranges qualified are recorded on a welders performance qualification (WPQ) record.

Another way of conceptualizing these requirements is shown below:

Specify:
Variable ranges
WPS
Essential variables
Nonessential variables
Record:
Actual variables
PQR
Essential variables
Tests and results
Record:
Actual variables
WPQ
Specify Ranges Qualified
Tests and results

Outline of Articles in ASME Section IX

An abbreviated summary of items covered in ASME Section IX is provided below
Article I - Welding General Requirements QW-100

Article I covers the scope of ASME Section IX, the purpose and use of the WPS, PQR and WPQ, responsibility, test positions,
types and purposes of tests and examinations, test procedures, acceptance criteria, visual examination, and radiographic
examination.

Article II - Welding Procedure Qualifications QW-200

Article II covers the rules for the preparation of WPS and PQR. Each process is listed separately in QW-250 with the essential,
supplementary essential, and nonessential variables.

The WPS shall specify a value or range for each essential, nonessential and, when necessary, each supplementary essential
variable listed for each welding process. The PQR shall record the value for each essential and, when necessary, each
supplementary essential variable used.

When a change is made in an essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and requalified with a new PQR, unless the revision
can be supported by an existing PQR.

Similarly, when the code requires notch-toughness, supplementary essential variables become additional essential variables.
When a change is made in a supplementary essential variable, the WPS must be revised, and requalified by a new PQR, unless
the revision can be supported by an existing PQR for notch-toughness applications.

Article III - Welding Performance Qualifications QW-300

Article III covers the preparation of WPQ records. Each welding process is listed separately in QW-350 with the essential variables
for welding performance. The WPQ form must record a value for each essential variable used and must list a range qualified for
each of these essential variables.
Article III covers responsibility, type of tests, records, welder identification, positions, diameters, expiration and renewal of
qualifications. Welders and Welding Operators may be qualified by visual and mechanical tests, or by radiography of a test
coupon, or by radiography of the initial production weld.

Article IV - Welding Data QW-400

Article IV covers welding variables that are used in the preparation and qualification of the WPS, PQR or the WPQ as applicable.
Some of the welding variables are listed below:

• Joints
• Base Materials
• Filler Materials
• Positions
• Preheat
• Postweld Heat Treatment
• Gas
• Electrical Characteristics
• Technique

Article IV also includes assignments of P-Numbers (ASME base materials), S-Numbers (other materials), F-Numbers (grouping of
filler metals) and A-Numbers (weld metal chemical analysis).

Tables for WPS qualification thickness limits and tables for WPQ thickness and diameter limits are also included. There are tables
for welding positions signifying that a welder who qualifies in a particular position is qualified to weld within a range of positions as
appropriate. Furthermore, test coupons, the removal of test specimens, and the test jig dimensions are identified.

Article V - Standard Welding Procedure Specifications (SWPS) QW-500

Article V covers rules for the adoption, demonstration, and application of the Standard Welding Procedure Specifications, (SWPSs).
If your company is experiencing these or other welding issues you can retain AMC to improve your weld processing. Hire AMC to
act as your welding specialist.

Oil Production
Methods of oil production
During well operations by more preferable methods, all required control,
management and well servicing work procedures are carried out.
One of the main current problems is the optimization of work parameters in
the well. Works in this direction are carried out taking into account the
ensuring combined operation of reservoir-well system.

Transition to this or another way of artificial lifting is carried out on the basis
of the program of long-term realization of oil production method
considering reservoir peculiarities and fluids saturating them.
The optimality is the main criterion of efficiency. Well operation optimality
criterion is specific power consumption for a unit of oil production.
Our operational experience allows to widely introduce method of gas-lift
well operation and all of its versions using packers and gas lift valves.
New highly effective versions of gaslift method oil production engineering
elements of the jet pump are developed and patented by specialist of our
company.

Natural gas production, gas treatment and reinjection

Stages of processing
Wells
Wells profile Types of wells

Types of well holes Placement of oil wells

Well productions methods
Well completion
The functions of a completion
Well completion includes the:

• Design of the tubulars (casing and tubing) which are installed in the well
 • Method of providing communication between the reservoir and borehole
• Method of raising reservoir fluids to the surface
• Design and installation of the various tools and accessories used to control and monitor the flow of fluids
• Design and installation of safety devices which will automatically shut in a well in the event of a
hydrocarbon leak

Completion Components
• Completion String Design
• Xmas Tree-Wellhead

Completion String Design

Design of the completion string General factors which enter the design criteria
involves the selection and specification
of the component parts of string.
Selection is done on the basis that the
component will provide a specific
facility necessary for the completion.
Each component makes the completion
more complex and its inclusion must be
justified as essential or providing
desirable flexibility.
Xmas Tree-Wellhead
We use standard Xmas Tree providing normal operations.
 Glossary
A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|I|J|K|L|M|N|O|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z

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Absorption The process by which one substance draws into itself another substance. Sponge-
absorbing moisture; oil-absorbing natural gasoline from wet gas.
Absorption oil The absorbing medium used in the absorption process; usually a hydrocarbon product with
a boiling range of 175oC to 290oC.
Absorption tower A tower or column which effects contact between a rising gas and a falling liquid so that
part of the gas may be taken up by the liquid. Accumulation: Quantity of hydrocarbons (oil
and natural gas) found in the reservoir rock in an oil or gas field.
Accumulator A vessel for the temporary storage of a gas or liquid; usually used for collecting sufficient
material for a continuous charge to some refining process.
Acid A member of an important and fundamental category of chemical substances
characterized by having an available reactive hydrogen and requiring an alkali to
neutralize it. It usually has a sour, bitingand tart taste, like vinegar which is in fact a
dilute solution of acetic acid.
Acid gas Hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, both of which are acidic when dissolved in water.
Acid sludge See sludge.
Acid treatment (Oil well) In limestone formations, freedom of movement of fluid towards the well depends
upon fissuring and/or permeability. Hydrochloric acid is employed to enlarge these
production channels due to the ease with which it will attack the limestone.
Additives Substances which, when added to petroleum fractions, modify or enhance their natural
properties.
Adsorption The adhesion, in an extremely thin layer, of the molecules of gases, of dissolved
substancesor liquids to the surfaces of solid bodies with which they are in contact.
Air Often used synonymously with atmosphere, the latter being preferred as more precise. Air
contains by volume the following (approx): 78 - 79% nitrogen; 20.95% oxygen; 0.94%
argon; traces of carbon dioxide, helium etc.
Alkylation A chemical reaction that consists in fixing an alkyl radical onto a molecule.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons in which the carbon-hydrogen groupings are arranged in open chains which
may be branched. The term includes paraffins and olefins and provides a distinction from
aromatics and naphthenes which have at least some of their carbon atoms arranged in
closed chains or rings.
Alkali In chemistry, any substance having marked basic properties. In its restricted and common
sense, the term is applied only to hydroxides of potassium, sodium, lithiumand
ammonium. They are soluble in water; have the power of neutralizing acids and forming
salts with them; and of turning red litmus blue. In a more general sense, the term is also
applied to the hydroxides of the so-called alkaline earth metals - barium, strontium and
calcium. An example is household lye which is sodium hydroxide.
Alkylation A catalytic process by which hydrocarbons of branched chain or ring structures are
combined with unsaturated hydrocarbons. For example, in the presence of sulphuric acid,
iso-butane combines with butane to form iso-octane.
Ambient air The air surrounding equipment or in a certain area.
Analysis The process of determining the composition of a substance by chemical or physical
methods.
Anhydrous Free of water, especially water of crystallization.
Anticline (geological) An earth-fold in which the strata are uplifted in the form of an arch.
Antifoam agent A specific agent used for combating and destroying a particular type of foam. Addition of
antifoam to soap suds will cause the soap bubbles to collapse.
Antiknock value Premature explosive combustion or detonation of the fuel-air mixture in an internal
combustion engine, produces a characteristic knock. The antiknock value of a fuel is a
measure of its resistance to the conditions which tend to produce this knock. See also
Octane number.
Antioxidant A substance which, when added in small amounts to petroleum products, will delay or
inhibit undesirable changes such as the formation of gum, sludgeand acidity which are
 brought about by oxidation.
A.P.I. American Petroleum Institute.
A.P.I gravity An arbitrary scale expressing the gravity or density of liquid petroleum products. The
measuring scale is calibrated in terms of API degrees.
Appraisal well A well drilled in order to evaluate the characteristics of a field.
Aqueous Watery; of, pertaining toor containing water.
Aromatics A group of hydrocarbons, of which benzene is the parent. They are called 'aromatics'
because many of their derivatives have sweet or aromatic odors. These hydrocarbons are
of relatively high specific gravity and possess good solvent properties. Certain aromatics
have valuable antiknock characteristics. Typical aromatics are: benzene, toluene, xylene.
Asphalt Natural or mechanical mixtures in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter.
The term is normally qualified by indication of type or origin, e.g. lake asphalt, natural
asphalt, etc. In the United States this term ' is generally used to describe the material
known in the United Kingdom as I asphaltic bitumen or bitumen.
Asphaltic bitumen See Bitumen.
Asphaltic cement Asphalt or bitumenor blends of these with one another or with flux oils, I such that the
product is a binder having cementing qualities suitable for the manufacture of asphalt
pavements, mastics, etc. Assisted recovery: Set of techniques for increasing the
productivity of a field. Associated gas: Gases present in the reservoir rock.
Atmosphere Is the mixture of gases and water vapor surrounding the earth.
Atmospheric pressure The pressure of air at sea level, exerted equally in all directions. The standard pressure is
that under which the mercury barometer stands at 760 mm. It is equivalent to about 101.3
kPa to a std. of 99.3 kPa. Atmospheric pressure in the Calgary area will be about 88.26
kPa.
Atom The smallest complete particle of an element which can be obtained, yet which retains all
physical and chemical properties of the element.
Atomic weight The weight of an elementary atom in relation to the weight of an atom of hydrogen, a
hydrogen atom being taken as 1.008. The proportional weights based on hydrogen, of all
the known elemental atoms have been accurately determined by direct experiment. This
arbitrary system permits the calculation of the proportionate quantities of the elements
composing one molecule of any compound. The weight of the molecule is the sum of the
weights of the atoms forming that molecule or chemical compound. (The chemist's atomic-
 weight scale is based on oxygen having a value of 16).
Attitude A general term to describe the relation of some directional feature in a rock to a horizontal
plane. The attitude of planar features (i.e. bedding, joints, etc.) is described by giving the
strike and dip.
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Ballast tank A tank intended to be filled with seawater to keep floating equipment stable.
Barrel Unit of volume of crude oil (approximately 159 liters) in use in the oil industry, especially
in the USA and the UK. Dates back to the days of sailing ships, when oil was shipped in
casks.
Back-pressure regulator An automatic valve designed to maintain a constant back pressure in the discharge line of
a vessel.
Baffle A partial restriction, generally a plate located to change the direction, guide the flowor
promote mixing within the equipment in which it is installed.
Barometric pressure The pressure of the atmosphere as registered by the barometer. About 88.26 kPa (normal)
at Calgary.
Barrel As the standard unit of measurement of liquids in the petroleum industry, it contains 42
US standard gallonsand 35 imperial gallons or 0.1586 m3.
Base A compound which reacts with an acid to form a salt. (See alkali).
Benzene A pure aromatic hydrocarbon of characteristic odor occurring in significant proportions in
certain Far Eastern crude oils. but usually obtained in the UK as a by-product of the coal-
gas industry.
Benzine Straight run petroleum spirit boiling within the range 80-130oC.
Benzole A mixture, predominantly composed of aromatic hydrocarbons obtained as a by-product of
the carbonization of coal, either from coal gas by absorption or from coal tar by
distillation. This mixture, after washing and rectification to concentrate the benzene and
eliminate undesirable constituents to any desired extent, is classified in Great Britain
according to purity as 'Motor Benzole', 'Industrial Benzole', "90's Benzole", 'Pure Benzole'
 and 'Pure Benzole for Nitration'. Recognized specifications for these British grades are
issued by the National Benzole Association.
Bitumen or asphaltic Black to dark brown solid or semi-solid organic material which gradually liquefies when
bitumen heated. These materials are usually obtained as residues from the vacuum distillation of
petroleum. See also Blown bitumen.
Bituminous mastic Mixtures of bitumen with inert fillers of fine mesh.
(bitumastic)
Bit Tool used in drilling to break up rock mechanically in order to penetrate the subsoil
gradually. The bit will dig a circular hole.
Black oils A general term applied to the heavier and darker colored petroleum products such as
heavy diesel fuel, fuel oil and some cylinder stocks. It is used mainly in connection with
shipping and storage; a black oil tanker is one used for carrying 'black oils' and which
would require cleaning before being used for 'white oils'.
Bleeding Diverting from a line or vessel a small portion of the contained material, usually
accomplished by slightly 'cracking' a valve on the line or vessel.
Blending Intimate mixing of the various components in the preparation of a product to meet a given
specification.
Bloom The bloom of an oil is its color by reflected light when this differs from its color by
transmitted light. Many petroleum oils which appear red or yellow by transmitted light
exhibit a blue or green bloom.
Blowcase A vessel used on a batch basis for removal of impurities.
Blown bitumen A semi-solid or solid oxidized product obtained primarily by bubbling air through hot liquid
bitumen, with a resultant increase in the melting point and a modification of other
physical properties.
Blowout preventer (BOP) Safety system that quickly closes a well in the course of drilling, to avoid accidental
blowouts.
Blown oil Fatty oil, of which the viscosity has been increased by blowing with air at an elevated
temperature.
Boiler horsepower One boiler horsepower equals the evaporation per hour of 15.65 kg of water at a
temperature of 100oC into steam at 100oC.
Boiling The process by which a liquid is rapidly changed to vapor by the application of heat.
Boiling point The temperature at which a substance begins to boil or to be converted into vapor by
 bubbles forming within its mass. It varies with the atmospheric pressure.
Boiling range The range of temperature, usually determined at atmospheric pressure in standard
laboratory apparatus, over which the boiling or distillation of an oil commences, proceeds
and finishes.
Bomb Steel cylinder used as testing device for conducting oil tests under high pressure. Used for
tests, such as gum in gasoline, sulphurand vapor pressure (Reid vapor pressure).
Bottoms The liquid which collects in the bottom of a vessel, either during a fractionating process or
while in storage (tower bottoms, tank bottoms).
Bottom-hole differential The difference between the reservoir pressure and the pressure at the bottom of a
pressure producing well is known as the bhdp. The magnitude of this pressure difference
determines the rate of flow of fluid towards the well-bore.
Bottom settlings Sludge collected at the bottom of tanks or other oil containers which comprises an
emulsified mixture of oil and water and sometimes wax, asphalt and mud.
Breathing The movement of gas (oil vapors or air) in and out of the vent lines of storage tanks due to
alternate heating and cooling.
Bright stock A lubricating oil of high viscosity prepared from a cylinder stock by further refining, e. g.
solvent deasphalting, dewaxing, acid treatment and/or earth treatment.
Brine Water which is nearly saturated with salts.
Bringing in (oil well) On completion of drilling and after withdrawal of the drill pipe, the backpressure on the
producing formation is reduced by bailing down the mud or by displacing it with a fluid of
lower specific gravity, until the oil can overcome the static head and flow into the well.
This is termed bringing the well in.
Bs & w 'Bottom settlings and water' comprises the solids and aqueous solutions which may be
present in an oil and which are separable therefrom by means of gravity or the centrifuge.
Btu British formal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water through 1?
F.
Bubble cap An inverted cup with a notched or slotted periphery to disperse the vapor in small bubbles
beneath the surface of the liquid on the bubble plate in a distillation column.
Bubble point The temperature at which the first incipient vaporization of a liquid occurs from a liquid
mixture. It corresponds with the equilibrium point of zero per cent vaporization or 100 per
cent condensation. The pressure should be specified if not one atmosphere.
Bubble tower or column A fractionating tower so constructed that the vapors rising pass up through layers of
 condensate on a series of plates. The vapor passes from one plate to the next above by
bubbling under one or more caps and out through the liquid on the plate. The less volatile
portions of vapor condense in bubbling through the liquid on the plateand overflow to the
next lower plateand ultimately back into the reboiler. Fractionation is thereby effected.
Bund An earthwork or wall surrounding a tank or tanks to retain the contents in the event of a
fracture of the tank.
Bunker fuel Any fuel oil or diesel fuel taken into the bunkers of ships.
Burette A carefully graduated glass tube used for measuring solutions in the chemical laboratory.
Butane Commercial butane is a mixture of gaseous paraffins, mainly normal-butane and iso-
butane (both C4H10). When blended into gasoline in small quantities, it improves volatility
and octane number. Butane can be stored under pressure as a liquid at atmospheric
temperatures and as 'bottled gas' it is widely used for cooking and domestic heating.
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Cable drilling In this system, the rock is penetrated by percussion of a bit on bottom, the bit being
suspended on a wire-line and the necessary motion imparted by a beam pivoted at the
center.
Calibration 1. The graduation of a measuring instrument. 2. The determination of error in a measuring
instrument.
Calorie The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1oC. The
kilogram calorie (i.e., 1,000 calories or 3.97 Btu) is also employed, particularly in
engineering.
Calorific value The amount of heat obtainable by the complete combustion of a unit weight of fuel. It is
normally expressed as calories per gram or Btu per pound, the latter being numerically 1.8
times the former. The higher or gross calorific value represents the total amount of heat
of combustion. This total includes the latent heat of condensation of the water vapor
produced by the combustion. Owing to the fact that the water vapor is not usually
condensed under practical conditions of combustion, the 'lower' or net calorific value,
 which excludes the latent heat of condensation of the water vapor, is a better guide to the
amount of useful heat obtainable from the fuel.
Capillarity The rising or falling of the surface of a liquid in contact with a solid such as the rocks of
producing sands. The fluid actually rises above the normal level due to surface tension.
Cap-rock (geological) An impervious layer, e. g. clay, which overlies a reservoir rock and prevents wholesale
leakage of petroleum to the surface.
Carbon black A substantially pure form of finely divided carbon usually produced from liquid or gaseous
hydrocarbons by controlled combustion with restricted air supply. It is used as a filler in
the rubber industry being specially valuable by virtue of the improved wearing quality
which it imparts to tire rubbers. Smaller quantities are used as pigment in printing inks
and paints.
Carbon dioxide A heavy, colorless gas, (CO2) which will not support combustion. Dissolved in water, it
forms carbonic acid. It is exhaled by lung-possessing animals as a waste gas, but is
inhaled by certain plants which absorb its carbon and release its oxygen as a waste gas.
Carbon monoxide A colorless, odorless gas (CO), a product resulting from the incomplete combustion of
carbon.
Casing The steel lining of a well, the main purposes of which are to prevent caving of the sides of
the well, to exclude water or gas from the well and to provide means for the control of well
pressures and oil production.
Casinghead gas See Natural gas.
Casing-shoe A steel sleeve protecting the lower end of the casing string when being inserted into the
well. Often provided with a drillable back-pressure valve, when it is called a cement float-
shoe.
Catalyst A substance which accelerates or changes the course of a reaction without itself
undergoing any chemical change. Or - Chemical compounds that facilitate or promote a
reaction by their presence or action.
Catalytic cracking This conversion operation takes place at very high temperatures (500 degrees Celcius) in
the presence of a catalyst. It serves to break up large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller
ones.
Cat feed Those products of the crude distillation process which are further refined through catalytic
cracking.
Cat-head (drilling) A small spool rotated by the draw-works on which a manila line is wound and used for
 making-up or backing-off the tool joints on the derrick floor. The operation is similar to
that of a capstan.
Cementing Injection of cement into the annulus (space) between the casing and the well wall to
consolidate the latter and reduced water influxes.
Cellar (oil well) An excavation, 3.0 to 7.5 meters deep, lined with concrete, designed to accommodate the
well-head fittings (Christmas-tree).
Cetane number An expression of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. It is the percentage by volume of
cetane in a mixture with alpha-methyl-naphthalene which has the same ignition quality as
the fuel under test.
Charge stock The mixture flowing to a still or fractionator. To charge a vessel is to flow the charge stock
into it.
Chiller A reboiler type of heat exchanger specially designed so that a boiling liquid on the shell
side cools the fluid passing through the tubes.
Christmas tree The collection of valves and fittings at the head of an oilwell used to control the flow of oil
from the well.
Chromatograph A laboratory instrument which separates components in gas and liquid samples.
Closure The vertical distance between the top of an anticlinal structure and the lowest level at
which a continuous encircling contour can be drawn.
Combustion The act or process of burning. Chemically, it is a process of rapid oxidation caused by the
union of the oxygen of the air, which is the supporter of combustion, with any material
which is capable of oxidation.
Compound A substance formed by the combination of two or more ingredients in definite proportions
by weightand possessing physical and chemical properties entirely different from those of
the ingredients.
Compounding A blending operation usually involving the addition of fatty oils to mineral lubricating oils.
Compression ratio The ratio of the volume enclosed in an engine cylinder at the beginning of the compression
stroke to the volume at the end of the compression stroke. Also the ratio of the discharge
to suction pressures of a compressor.
Condensate (hydrocarbon Refers to liquefiable hydrocarbons that have condensed from natural gas. The term also
condensate) may apply to inorganic liquids such as steam condensate.
Condensation In physics and engineering, the act or process of changing a vapor to a liquidor a lighter to
another and denser form, by depression of temperature or increase of pressure.
Condenser As ordinarily used, the term means the water-cooled heat exchangers used for cooling and
liquefying oil vapors.
Conduction Transfer of heat or electricity through a solid or fluid by direct contact of particles.
Convection The flow of heat through liquids or gases by actual mixing of the liquids or gases,
(physical turbulence)
Convection section That portion of the furnace in which tubes receive heat by convection from the flue gases.
Coolers Any type of heat exchanger whose primary purpose is to reduce the temperature of one of
the passing materials by heat transfer to the other.
Core In rotary drilling, special bits are employed when required to cut cylindrical samples of the
formations penetrated. These samples, known as cores, are examined to obtain geological
information.
Corrosion Destructive alteration of metal from chemical reactions.
Covalence Term used to indicate the bonding that results from the mutual sharing of pairs of
electrons. The resulting compounds or molecules are called covalent. An example is CCl4 .
Each Cl atom ends up with 8 electrons (7 of its own plus 1 from the C atom); each C atom
ends up with 8 electrons (4 of its own plus 4 from the Cl atom).
Cracking A process in which the feedstock is subjected to a high temperature for a limited time with
the object of increasing the yield of light products, e.g. gasoline, at the expense of the
heavier. Cracking processes are also the source of the olefins which are the intermediates
in the manufacture of many petroleum chemicals. Sometimes a substance which promotes
reaction, i. e. a catalyst, is present. This has the effect of reducing the temperature at
which cracking takes place and gives greater control over the reaction.
Cracking catalytic A cracking process in which a catalyst is used to promote reaction.
Cracking thermal A cracking process in which no catalyst is used to promote reaction, cracking being
effected purely by the application of heat.
Cratered well Is a well which has caved in. This condition occurs when the gas pressure in a bore hole is
such that it blows out around the surface pipe when the well is closed in.
Critical pressure The pressure necessary to condense a gas at the critical temperature above which the gas
cannot be liquefied, no matter what pressure is applied.
Critical temperature The temperature at which a gas can be liquefied by a maximum pressure, the critical
pressure; above this temperature the gas cannot be liquefied, no matter what pressure is
applied.
Crown-block An assembly of wire-line sheaves corresponding to the sheaves of the travelling block
carrying the steel line on which the travelling block is suspended. It is mounted on the top
of the derrick.
Crude oil See Petroleum. (Note - In rare cases only can such untreated material be used as a fuel).
Cut The product drawn from a still or fractionator at any specified temperature. To 'take a cut'
is to draw a product from a still or fractionator at a specified temperature.
Cutback Bitumen which has been rendered liquid by the addition of a suitable diluent such as white
spirit, kerosineor creosote. It is used as a means of incorporating bitumen with road-
metal.
Cycling The injection of dry gas into a gas-condensate reservoir at such points that it will push or
sweep the gas condensate towards the producing well.
Cylinder stock Dark-colored residual lubricating oil of high viscosity used as the basis of steam cylinder
oil.
Christmas tree Another name for a wellhead.
Coke A solid material similar to coal that can be produced from processing of heavy oil.
Coking A refining process by which the denser, heavier products of the distillation process
(residuals) are converted to lighter products such as cat feed and naphtha, and petroleum
coke, a solid, coal-like fuel. The coking unit, or coker, heats hydrocarbons to near 800
degrees Fahrenheit, at which temperature all the lighter products vaporize and the coke
solidifies in a large drum called a coke drum from which it is removed by means of high-
pressure jets of water.
Completion (well) All operations (tubing, installation of valves, wellhead, etc.) to bring a production well into
operation.
Conversion This stage in the refining process consists of breaking up the large molecules into smaller
ones in order to produce lighter compounds. Processes involved include catalytic cracking
and viscosity reduction (visbreaking).
Cooling tower A structure which cools heated refining process water by circulating the water through a
series of louvers and baffles through which cool air is forced by large fans.
Core-sampling (or coring) During drilling, cylindrical samples of rock known as 'core samples' are removed in order
to study the characteristics of the terrain.
Crude oil A mixture of thousands of chemicals and compounds, primarily hydrocarbons. Crude oil
must be broken down into its various components by distillation before these chemicals
 and compounds can be used as fuels or converted to more valuable products. Crude oil is
classified as either sweet crude (sulfur content less than 0.5%) or sour crude, (at least
2.5% sulfur).
Crude unit The refinery processing unit where initial crude oil distillation takes place. See topping.
Cut One or more crude oil compounds which vaporize and are extracted within a certain
temperature range during the crude distillation process. See distillation curve.
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Derrick Metal tower erected vertically above a well for the purpose of lifting and lowering tubes
and tools into the well.
Derrick-man Member of the drilling crew who works at the top of the derrick.
Desalting Removal of salt from crude oil. Desalting is preferably performed prior to
commercialization of the crude, and must be performed prior to refining.
Development All operations and measures undertaken to bring a reservoir into production.
Diamond-tipped (tools) Drill-bit or other tool whose cutting-edge has been hardened with manmade diamonds.
Directional drilling The most common drilling direction is vertical, but there may be various reasons for
drilling obliquely.
Distillation The first step in the refining process. During distillation, crude oil is heated in the base of
a distillation tower. As the temperature increases, the crude's various compounds vaporize
in succession at their various boiling points, then rise to prescribed levels within the tower
according to their densities, condense in distillation trays, and are drawn off individually
for further refining. Distillation is also used at other points in the refining process to
remove impurities.
Distillation curve A graph which plots the percentage (by volume) of a given grade of crude which boils off
as a function of temperature. Since the boiling points of the various crude cuts are
constant, the distillation curve shows the percentage of each compound in a given grade
or batch of crude.
Distillation tower A tall column-like vessel in which crude oil is heated and its vaporized components
 distilled by means of distillation trays. Also used to remove impurities added during the
refining process.
Drill Making a hole by means of whatever mechanism.
Drill string Set of drilling tools, comprising pipes connected to each other, the bit, and the different
tools. In drilling, the drill string is rotated by the rotary table.
Drilling mud Mixture of water and special additives circulating within the well for the purpose of
cooling the drill-bit, removing rock cuttings and transporting them back up to the surface,
preventing the well wall from caving in, maintaining sufficient pressure at the well bottom
to avoid hydrocarbon blowout.
Drum cycle In the petroleum coking process, the length of time it takes to heat the coke drum
sufficiently to safely introduce hot hydrocarbons, transform the raw material into solid
petroleum coke, and remove or cut the solid coke from the drum before repeating the
process. The shorter the drum cycle, the more economical the coke manufacturing
process.
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Echosounder Device used to calculate the distance of an obstacle based on the time a soundwave takes
to travel to the obstacle and back.
Effluent Mixture of oil, gas, water and sand discharged from a well.
Electron An elementary particle carrying a negative electric charge. An electron's mass is negligible
compared with that of protons and neutrons.
Enhanced recovery Recovery techniques designed to extract more hydrocarbons from a reservoir by physical,
chemical or thermal means.
Exchanger (Heat exchanger)Any device used to transfer heat from one process liquid to another. In one kind of
exchanger, process hydrocarbons are circulated through tubes surrounded by cooling air
or water.
Exploration Any method used to discover new oil and gas fields.
Exploration well Well drilled to find an oil field.
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Field Set of porous rocks containing hydrocarbons.

Flare bleeder Device for evacuating and burning unused gases.
Fractionation The separation of crude oil into its more valuable and usable components through
distillation.
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Gas cap Upper portion of reservoir rock of a gas-containing field. The gas extracted during oil
production is sometimes injected into the gas cap in order to boost hydrocarbon recovery.
Geophone Acoustical sensor for collecting reflected waves, in seismic exploration.
Gravity A property of a material that compares its weight to its volume.
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Heat exchanger See exchanger

Horizontal drilling Extreme form of directional drilling, in which the hole is drilled along a horizontal stratum.
Hydrocarbon Chemical compound formed only of carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrophone Acoustical sensor used for collecting reflected waves in seismic exploration at sea.
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Injection well Well used to inject water or gas, in order to maintain a field at pressure or bring it back
under pressure.
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Jacket Steel structure placed on the seabed with a deck supporting drilling and/or production
facilities.
Jet fuel A fuel used in aircraft. Jet fuel is obtained by distillation and sweetening. The latter
removes all trace of mercaptans (very light molecules containing sulfur atoms). Jet fuel is
a white product, so-called because it is transparent.
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Kick-off (deflected) well Well whose orientation and inclination are determined to reach an area not directly below
the well.
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Loading flange Installations required to deliver crude oil to a refinery.

Lubes (Lubricants) Denser, more viscous refined products such as motor oil, bearing grease or machine oil.
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Manifold Set of pipes and valves directing the effluent or production into facilities.
Mantle Impermeable stratum overlaying a reservoir which prevents the hydrocarbons contained in
it from migrating to other rocks.
Mantle (earth's) The part of the earth between the crust and the central core.
Mercaptan Molecules containing sulfur, with a low molecular weight and therefore very light.
Mother (or source) rock Rock in which hydrocarbons are formed.
MTBE Methyl tertiary butyl ethane is a gasoline additive which increases octane rating.
MTBF Mean time between failures is the average service life of a piece of process equipment,
particularly for rotating equipment. A refinery's MTBF is one indicator of the effectiveness
of its maintenance program.
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Naphta An oil distillate. Naphta is an intermediate product between gasoline and kerosene. It is
known as a light product because of the low molecular weight of the hydrocarbons making
it up.
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Octane number In a gasoline-powered engine, combustion is triggered by a sparkplug. Given the high
pressure and temperatures prevailing inside the combustion chamber, it is vital to prevent
 the fuel from igniting spontaneously. The octane number measures a fuel's resistance to
spontaneous ignition. The higher the octane number, the greater fuel's resistance to
spontaneous ignition.
Offshore Designates oil fields and facilities constructed at sea.
Oil-bearing reservoir Continuous volume of rock containing voids, pores, or a network of cracks, and in which
fluids (hydrocarbons, water, and inert gases) can circulate.
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Petrochemicals Chemicals produced from petroleum. They are often manufactured as part of the refining
process.
Petroleum From the Latin petra oleum, meaning 'stone oil', an inflammable oily liquid varying in color
from yellow to black, consisting of widely varying hydrocarbons, found in sedimentary
strata of the earth's crust.
Platform Set of facilities rising above the sea, used to operate offshore fields.
Porosity Ratio of the volume of interstices of a material to the volume of its mass. In oil fields, the
oil and gas are contained in pores in the rock.
Production sharing Contract by which the production of a field is shared between the host government and
agreement the oil company operating the field. The company is paid in the form of cost oil, to cover
the exploration and development expenses borne by it alone, and profit oil, which
represents its profit on the venture.
Production well Well used when producing oil.
Prospect Underground area in which geologists think there is a chance of finding oil.
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Reboiler A special kind of heat exchanger used to put heat into a distillation column.
Refinery Plant where crude oil is separated and transformed into marketable products.
Reforming A refining process wherein short-chain molecules in certain crude distillation products are
chemically recombined (reformed) by means of heat, pressure, and usually, catalytic
reaction to form higher-value long-chain-molecule compounds.
Reserves (of a field) Volume of oil trapped in a rock.
Reservoir characteristics All of the features that serve to characterize the hydrocarbons (viscosity, density, etc.)
and the rock containing them (porosity, permeability, etc.).
Rotary Drilling method consisting of drilling rocks with bits turning about their axis. The rocky
debris is continuously evacuated to the surface by a flow of mud under pressure.
Rotary table Circular plate in a drilling rig that transmits the rotational motion to the drill pipes
through the drive pipe.
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Sample Small quantity of rock removed, often by coring, for analysis.

Sediments Deposits of particles of variable sizes, coming either from the erosion of old rocks or from
activities (shellfish shells or other). With time, the sediments become sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary basin Terrain consisting of superposed layers of rock formed from the deposition of sediment
over vast tracts of ocean or lake beds, over the course of geological eras.
Sedimentary rock Rock made up of aggregated sediments.
Seismic analysis The seismic principle is to generate elastic waves methodically and study their
propagation through the subsoil. The seismic waves are refracted and reflected as they
travel through the various rock strata, and are detected at the ground or sea surface by
appropriately placed geophones. The seismic records are interpreted to generate
information concerning the shape of the underground strata in the explored region.
Self-raising platform An offshore drilling platform fitted with large buoyancy tanks which are filled with
seawater to keep the rig stable in the sea swell.
Separation The first stage in refining, consisting in separating the different hydrocarbons present in
the crude oil depending on their respective boiling ranges. This process takes place in a
 distillation column.
Separator Apparatus that separates oil, gases, and water contained in the effluent at the exit from a
production well, by making use of their relative densities.
Slot Element of a drill shirttail for guiding the drill tube.
Sounding well Hole for obtaining data concerning the characteristics of a field.
Sour crude Crude oil containing a substantial amount of sulfur.
Strata Layers of rock making up a terrain.
Stratum of a terrain Mineral deposits in superposed layers.
Stripping A separation process that consists in injecting water steam into the distillation residue in
order to recover the lightest molecules.
Subsoil Part of the earth's crust located below the surface.
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TAME Tertiary amyl methyl ethane is a gasoline additive which increases octane rating.
Topping (Atmospheric The initial transformation of the crude oil at a refinery. The topper heats crude oil at
distillation) atmospheric pressure to accomplish the first rough distillation cut. The lighter products
produced in this process are further refined in the catalytic cracking unit or the reforming
unit. Heavier products which cannot be vaporized and separated in this process are
distilled still further in the vacuum distillation unit or the coker.
Tray Flat, perforated shelves at prescribed levels in a distillation tower, which allow specific
vaporized crude oil components to pass through and then condense on their surfaces
(after contacting domes called bubble caps above the perforations) before being drawn off
for further distillation.
Treatment Set of procedures for separating the various components of the effluent and obtaining
crude oil.
Tubing Set of steel tubular elements in the center of the well, by which the effluent is evacuated
to the surface.
Turnaround Scheduled large-scale maintenance activity wherein an entire process unit is taken
 offstream for an extended period for comprehensive revamp and renewal.
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Vacuum distillation Process by which heavier cuts of crude not vaporized in the topping process are heated in
a vacuum to accomplish their fractionation.
Vent Gas safety exhausting system to avoid dangerous excess pressures building up.
Visbreaking This is a thermal cracking process. Like catalytic cracking, it breaks up large molecules
into smaller ones. It is applied to the residue of vacuum distillation as part of the overall
conversion process.
Viscosity The ability of a liquid to flow at a given temperature.
Volatility The ability of a liquid to evaporate.
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Well Hole drilled underground for oil exploration and operation. By extension, any apparatus
used for this purpose.
Wellhead All connections, valves, nozzles, pressure gages, thermometers, and so forth, installed at
the exit from a production well.
Well-logging Electrical recording of physical characteristics of rocks traversed by a well.
White product A term used to refer the lightest products resulting from the refining process, because of
their transparent appearance.

In order to boost production from wells, which do not flow at all or do not flow at optimum level, artificial system using a variety of methods are
used. These methods use Gas Lift, Plunger Lift, Chamber Lift, Rod Pumps, Submersible Pumps and so on. American Completion Tools
provides a complete line of Equipment and Services for such applications, e.g. Gaslift, Plunger Lift and Chamber Lift.
Which artificial method will be most effective for a particular well can be determined by evaluating several factors such as well's production
potential, Gas/Oil ratios, well bore deviation and size as well as corrosion/erosion potential of produced fluids. Other factors include availability
of power source such as compressed gas, electricity, surface facility, service availability, space limitation and personnel capabilities.

The diagram below provides the basic components of a Gas lift System. In many fields, a high pressure well provides a readily available energy
source. If sufficient gas pressure or volume is not available, a compressor can be utilized to operate a closed system. The Gas is recirculated
through a compressor facility. Only minor amount of make up gas is needed to replenish gas lost in separation processing or as fuel for
compressor facilities.
Schematic 1- The single string Gas lift completion for intermittent lift applications utilizes a standing valve near bottom of the tubing to prevent
Gas pressure surges against the reservoir during cyclic operations. A single zone continuous lift installation would not require a standing valve
but otherwise it will be identical. In either application Conventional or Side Pocket Mandrel can be used. Side Pocket Mandrels are designed to
provide the facility of removing and replacing Gas Lift Valves without removing the tubing. These service operations are performed either by
using wireline, through - flow line (TFL) or coiled tubing methods depending on the completion configuration. Wire line installations are more
economical for servicing wells with vertical access, especially remote, offshore or other hard - to - reach locations, since wireline units are light
and portable. TFL and coil tubing service methods can provide production maintenance for wells that require tubing loops, such as ocean floor
completions, highly deviated wells, extremely deep wells and any well where there is no straight or vertical access for wireline service.

Schematic 2 - This illustrates dual-string installations where Gas Lift Valves lift fluids from two zones using gas from a common annulus. An
installation can be designed, with proper well information to produce and carry both zones to depletion. The conditions affecting dual string
design are casing size, distance between zones, well bore deviation, continuous or intermittent lift and operator's preference. Gas lift valves
should be of proportional response or production pressure operated if the operation has to be trouble free.
Schematic 3 - In the chamber lift system, one normally utilizes two packers, a standing valve, a perforated pup above the bottom packer, and a
differential vent valve just below the top packer in addition to the Gas Lift Valve necessary to unload and produce the well.
While the bottom injection pressure operated valve is closed, the standing valve is open. Fluid fills both the tubing and annular space (chamber)
between the two packers. The differential valve is open, and allows gas in the top of the annular part of the chamber to bleed into the tubing as
the chamber fills. When the chamber has filled to the point that the liquid level is near the differential valve, the operating gas lift valve opens. A
calculated gas volume enters the top of the chamber, closing the bleed valve and standing valve, forcing accumulated liquids to U-tube from the
chamber to the tubing. Liquids are produced as a slug to the surface. As the tubing is cleared, the operating gas lift valve closes, the standing
valve and bleed valve open, and liquids again refill the chamber. The cycle then repeats.

If properly planned, a chamber lift system permits a larger volume of fluid to be produced by intermittent lift from wells with a high productivity
index and low-to medium bottom hole pressure.

Schematic 4 - In certain cases, Chemical injection is desirable to be coupled with Gas Lift. Side Pocket Mandrels may be run at pre-determined
depths for Gas lift valves to be installed. An additional mandrel with a chemical injection valve and injection line may also be run to desired
depth on the same tubing string. Tubing/Casing annulus can be used for gas injection and the injection line for chemical injection.
Schematic 5 - Macaroni tubing installation work well in either intermittent or continuous Gas Lift System. Essentially the installation is same as
a single zone installation except the size of the macaroni string is the limiting factor due to ultra-slim hole conditions. It is an ideal method of
artificial lift for slim hole completions.

Schematic 6 - This fig. shows a simple installation without packer application for unloading fluids in a gas well. Plunger lift systems can
effectively produce high GOR wells, water producing gas wells, or very low bottom hole pressure oil wells (used with gas lift). Depending upon
individual well requirements surface/subsurface equipment varies. Installation may or may not require a packer and/or additional gas.