Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Edition : 03
Our Training Directory describes all training programmes and modules this document (and
others) is used in.
This document was especially written for use during class instruction.
The contents of this document are generic. It deals with concepts and principles, rather than
with the latest releases of and modifications to the product delivered to the customers.
International audiences use this document. It is therefore written in a clear, concise and
above all, consistent language.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. DESCRIPTION OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 SDH FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 SDH TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 SECTION LAYER OVERHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 REGENERATOR SECTION OVERHEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 MULTIPLEXER SECTION OVERHEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.1 THE POINTER MECHANISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.2 ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.3 TRIBUTARY UNIT POINTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.7 PATH LAYER OVERHEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.1 HIGHER ORDER POH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7.2 LOWER ORDER POH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PREFACE
Telecom operators introduced digital transmission into the telephone network from the
1970s. Initially they used first order multiplexing, when only a relatively small number of
speech channels ( for example 30 speech channels) are multiplexed. The need for more
capacity in the telephone network resulted in the definition of higher order digital
transmission rates, multiplexing even more speech channels ( for example 120 or 480
speech channels). The set of standards that explains this transmission system is referred to
as the Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH).
As we will see in this chapter, transmission systems based on PDH have a number of weak
points.
The telecom operators as well as the business users needed a better system. Thus it
became necessary to develop a new, high capacity, flexible transmission system.
Research started in the mid 1980s in the USA, and resulted in the Bellcore – ANSI standard
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
referred to as the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). This transmission system was
specifically designed for the North American market. CCITT accepted the concept of this
transmission system, but it had to make certain changes to define a worldwide system. The
participants in CCITT reached an agreement in 1988, and the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) transmission system was born.
Next, we explain the weak points of the existing PDH system that led to the development of
SDH.
At the same time we give the requirements for the SDH system.
1.1 COMPLEXITY
Let us first take a look at the transmission network itself, and examine the impact of the
introduction of optical technology in the long distance transmission network.
Traditionally, before optical fibres were available, coaxial cables were used to construct long
distance transmission networks.
The price of the coaxial cable is heavily related to its bandwidth. ( Figure1)
Cost
Higher quality
coax
High quality
coax
Thick coax
Thin coax
Mbit/s
2 8 34 140
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Because the coaxial cable costs are much higher for a higher order system than the costs
for a lower order system, the networks were carefully dimensioned, according to the capacity
needed on each link.
Figure 2 shows the typical structure of a small network.
Network
node
1 x 8 Mbit/s
2 x 2 Mbit/s
1 x 2 Mbit/s 2 x 2 Mbit/s
Network
node
Optical fibres can carry any bitrate, for example from 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s and even higher.
Consequently, the cost of the optical fibre is independent of the bitrate it carries.
Furthermore, because of the constant technical improvements in the field of fibre technology,
optical transmitters and receivers, and the widespread use of optical systems, the price of
optical transmission systems was reduced drastically over the past years. ( Figure 3)
45 Mbit/s
1000
90 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
10 1.2 Gbit/s
1 2.5 Gbit/s
Consequently, a network, which uses optical fibre transmission links, will possibly have a
different structure. The point–to–point connections in the traditional network can be replaced
by a ring network.
Such a ring network operates at a high speed, for example at 140 Mbit/s and it passes
through all the network nodes. ( Figure 4 )
Network
node
140 Mbit/s
ring network
Network Network
node node
Network
node
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
It carries information for several network nodes on the same optical cable. Lower order
signals (for example 2 Mbit/s) that carry information destined for a certain network node are
removed from the high order signal (140 Mbit/s) in that network node. Similarly, lower order
signals can also be inserted into the higher order signal in that network node.
Let us see what happens in a network node, when we have to remove and/or insert a lower
order signal from/to the higher order signal carried by the backbone network.
When we want to insert a tributary signal into the higher order signal the inverse procedure
is done. Starting from a 2 Mbit/s signal, three multiplexing steps are needed to come to the
140 Mbit/s signal.
140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
140 34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2
34 34 . .
. 34 140
.
2
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
64 x 2 Mbit/s
Back–to–back multiplexing is not an optimal solution. The reason lies in the PDH
multiplexing structures .
The most fundamental parameters of digital telecommunications are the sampling rate
of 8 kHz and the allocation of 8 bits per PCM coded sample. This results in a basic frame
rate for digital transmission of 125µs which, at 8 bits per channel (slot), is equivalent to a
basic channel (slot) rate of 64 kbit/s.
The first order signals (2 Mbit/s) in the PDH system are formed by the synchronous
interleaving of 8–bit basic channel octets. This is possible because the basic channel
sampling rate (64kbit/s) and the primary aggregate rate (2Mbit/s) are both derived from the
same, local clock source.
The octet structure is thus maintained in the aggregate signal. ( Figure 6 )
channel nr.
0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31 0 1 2 3 29 30 31
ËË ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
ËË ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
ËË channel 8 bits
ÉÉ Ë ÉÉ ËË ÉÉ
Frame 125µs
time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 8 bits
example: conversation 1 in channel 1 ÉÉÉ = 8 bits
example: conversation 3 in channel 30
= 8 bits
example: conversation 2 in channel 2
To reduce the cost of transmission, it was necessary to multiplex a number of these first
order signals into a higher order signal for transmission as a single entity. It was not possible
to use the simple process of byte interleaving because it required the universal
synchronisation of all first order sources, at the time not available. Consequently, higher
order PDH transmission systems are based on bit interleaving. Each bit in a given byte of
the higher order frame is part of a different conversation. ( Figure 7 )
time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 1 bit
example: conversation 1
= 1 bit
example: conversation 2ÉÉÉ = 1 bit
example: conversation 3
So the bits that make up a single conversation (64 kbit/s) are distributed throughout the
transmission frame. Predicting their exact location is difficult because of the extra timing bit,
used for bit stuffing.
Each higher order frame contains per tributary one bit position, that can be stuffed.
Whether this bit contains tributary signal information or it is stuffed depends on the difference
of the real bitrate and the nominal bitrate of the incoming tributary signal. The problem is that
the content of this bit (tributary data or stuffing) is not known before demultiplexing. This is
the reason why it is impossible to remove a 2 Mbit/s signal from a 140 Mbit/s signal directly.
We have to go through the different demultiplexing levels, as shown on Figure 5. Because of
the same reasons we can not insert directly a 2 Mbit/s signal into a 140 Mbit/s signal either.
In the SDH transmission network the network resources are synchronised to a master
clock. (More about synchronisation in chapter 3.3)
In such a network it is possible to assemble higher order frames by byte interleaving, instead
of bit interleaving as it happens in PDH networks.
This permits a more appropriate way to remove and add lower order signals from and into a
higher order signal. We can now directly drop/add lower order signals, without having to
demultiplex/multiplex through the whole hierarchy. ( Figure 8 )
ADD/DROP multiplexer
Because of historical reasons different PDHs were defined in the North American, European
and Japanese transmission networks. A fourth hierarchy was defined as a hybrid of the
European and North American PDHs when it became necessary to connect digital
transmission links between the continents. Figure 9 shows all four hierarchies.
level America
0 64 64 64 64
The existing PDHs only define bit rates up to 140 Mbit/s. Modern optical systems can offer
higher bit rates. So, in the SDH new levels of multiplexing hierarchies will be defined for
these high bit rates.
1.3 MANAGEMENT
Operators need a standardised way to manage their equipment and their network. In this
way transmission equipment from different vendors can also be managed centrally.
Traditional PDH equipment was not foreseen to be part of a powerful management system.
However, when higher order systems were designed, management had to be considered
too.
Problems still remained :
– limited functionality;
– proprietary management systems;
– no multi–vendor network management.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Because of the importance of efficient management the definition of the SDH transmission
system foresees a framework for this purpose.
The defined management strategy is also in line with the principles of the
Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) philosophy.
2. DESCRIPTION OF SDH
The name of the SDH transmission frame is Synchronous Transport Module, and it is
referred to as STM–N, where N indicates the SDH hierarchy level.
Figure 10 shows the basic, first level SDH frame structure, the
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE 1 (STM–1).
270 bytes
1 9 10 270
1
125 µsec
The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the top left corner
(row number 1 on Figure 10).
It is also possible, that in the future higher rates corresponding to higher values of N will be
defined if network operators need them and when technology permits.
In the SONET transmission system the basic, first level transmission frame is the
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT SIGNAL 1 (STS–1). Its bitrate is 51,840 Mbit/s. (Figure 11)
90 bytes
1 3 4 90
1
125 µsec
The SDH frames STM–1, STM–4, and STM–16 correspond respectively to STS–3, STS–12,
and STS–48 in the SONET standards.
Transmission path
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Multiplex section
Regenerator
section
The STM–N frame contains different types of overhead information. The overhead
information is used for operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning (OAM&P).
The concept of layers permits to structure the overhead information into different blocks
inside of the STM–N frame. So each type of equipment has direct access to the information
it needs, and each type of equipment interprets only that information, which is meaningful
for it.
The Path layer overhead carries information related to a specific signal and its path through
the network.
The Multiplex Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication between
multiplexers.
The Regenerator Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication
between regenerators.
Chapter 1 referred to the fact that a PDH network is based on a synchronous frame
of 125 µsec, derived from the sampling rate used for the PCM of voice signals. It also
showed, that the PDH first order signals use byte interleaved frame structures, derived from
this same basic 125 µsec frame.
The SDH extends this principle to higher order multiplexing. Multiplexing is always done by
byte interleaving of 125 µsec frame synchronous signals.
STM–1 is the internationally standardised first order SDH frame, with a bitrate
of 155,52 Mbit/s. This frame can carry:
– a single, higher order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s
or
– several lower order plesiochronous signals, which are multiplexed into a higher
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s . These lower order signals can be of
any type defined in the PDH hierarchy.
lower order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
CONTAINER
lower order
PATH OVERHEAD
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
higher order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
AU PTR Payload
SECTION
OVERHEAD Synchronous Transport Module
Figure 14 shows an example how multiplexing is done in SDH. It also introduces some new
terms (abbreviations), which we want to explain in this chapter.
C–1 C–1
byte interleaved
byte interleaved
byte interleaved
CONTAINER (C)
A signal, which has to be transported in the SDH transmission network, is first ”put” in a
container.
To fit the different plesiochronous signals, different container sizes are defined. Figure 15
shows these containers.
C–11 1,544
C–12 2,048
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
C–2 6,312
C–3 34,368
44,736
C–4 139,264
POH Container
Different types of virtual containers exist. They are : VC–11, VC–12, VC–2, VC–3, and
VC–4. They correspond to their respective containers and their associated POH.
The TU Pointer shows the offset of the lower order VC frame start relative to the higher
order VC frame start. This information is needed to align the phases of the two VCs.
Types of Tributary Units : TU–1, TU–2, TU–3. They correspond to their respective virtual
containers and their associated TU pointer.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TU PTR
lower order
Virtual Container
TUGs are defined in a flexible way. A TUG can be formed by different types of TUs, but in a
particular TUG structure only TUs of the same type are permitted.
TU–1 TU–1
PTR PTR VC–1 VC–1
The AU Pointer shows the offset of the higher order VC frame start relative to the multiplex
section frame (STM–N) start. This information is needed for phase alignment, which is to
adapt the higher order path layer to the multiplex section layer.
The location of the AU Pointer is fixed inside of the STM–N frame.
Types of Administrative Units : AU–3, AU–4. They correspond to their respective virtual
containers and their associated AU pointer.
AU–3 AU–3
PTR PTR VC–3 VC–3
Before we discuss the section overhead, the pointer, and the path overhead informations in
more detail, it is useful to see which are the possible multiplexing paths that lead to an
STM–N frame.
Figure 21 shows the multiplexing structure, as CCITT defined it. This structure provides
useful reference information to situate the different types of VCs, TUs, TUGs, AUs, and
AUGs.
SDH mapping : A procedure, where tributary signals are adapted into Virtual Containers at
the edge of an SDH network.
– asynchronous mapping;
The incoming signals have the characteristic bitrate:
1,544 Mbit/s ± 50 ppm, 2,048 Mbit/s ± 50 ppm,
6,312 Mbit/s ± 30 ppm,
34,368 Mbit/s ± 20 ppm, 44,736 Mbit/s ± 20 ppm,
139,264 Mbit/s ± 15 ppm.
– bit synchronous mapping;
– byte synchronous mapping.
At the TU–1 and TU–2 levels we define two more types of mapping, the floating mode and
the locked mode mapping.
The asynchronous mapping uses the floating mode, the synchronous mapping can use
either the floating mode or the locked mode.
Floating mode : TUs are organised in a 500 µsec multiframe structure
(see chapter 2.6.3.b.). Pointer processing is needed.
Locked mode : fixed mapping of the signal inside of the TUG. Because of this
fixed position, no TU Pointers needed. No multiframe structure used either.
Floating mode is used more often than locked mode.
SDH aligning : A procedure, where the frame offset value is combined with the
Tributary Unit or with the Administrative Unit.
xN x1
STM–N AUG AU–4 VC–4 C–4
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
TUG–3 TU–3 VC–3
x3
x7
x7 44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2 C–2
6,312 Mbit/s
x3
mapping
multiplexing
1,544 Mbit/s
This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other
type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers.
ETSI defined a subset of possible multiplexing versions. Versions related to the SONET
standard are not supported. ( Figure 22 )
xN x1
STM–N AUG AU–4 VC–4 C–4
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
TUG–3 TU–3 VC–3
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
x7
C–3
44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2
x3
mapping
multiplexing
VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other
type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers.
1 9 10 270 bytes
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
1
3
STM–1
5
1 9 bytes
2 REGENERATOR
SECTION OVERHEAD
3
6
MULTIPLEXER
7
SECTION OVERHEAD
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 bytes
1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X
RSOH 2 B1 E1 F1 X X
3 D1 D2 D3
5 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
6 D4 D5 D6
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
MSOH
7 D7 D8 D9
9 S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X
Unmarked bytes
These bytes are RESERVED for future international standardisation (for media dependent,
additional national use and other purpose).
A1 and A2 bytes
The name of these bytes is FRAMING bytes, so they are used for frame alignment.
Their values are: – A1 : 11110110;
– A2 : 00101000.
J0 byte
This byte is the REGENERATOR SECTION TRACE byte.
Its content is for further study.
Note: in earlier versions of the recommendation, this byte was marked as C1. Its purpose
was to identify the interleaved STM–1 frames in an STM–N frame.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Scrambling
The complete STM–N frame, except of the first row of the SOH, is scrambled. The
scrambling is done to maintain acceptable transition density and DC balance.
Control of these two parameters is necessary for transmission on many media, also on
optical fibre (transitions).
The framing information must not be scrambled, because the scrambler receives its frame
synchronisation from the STM–N frame itself. Only when the STM–N frame is recovered can
the rest of the STM–N frame be descrambled.
The standards recommend a 7–stage frame synchronous scrambler of generating
polynomial 1+x6+x7 and sequence length 127.
B1 byte
This byte permits the ERROR MONITORING of the regenerator section.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity 8 (BIP–8) code, and even parity.
The general format of the polynomial is xn+x0, here n=8.
When information is sent : the BIP–8 is calculated over all bits of the previous STM–N frame
after scrambling, and it is put in the B1 byte of the actual STM–N frame before scrambling.
When information is received : the BIP–8 is recalculated, and if the calculated value differs
from the received value it is a sign of an error block.
E1 byte
The name of this byte is ENGINEERING ORDER WIRE channel, and it is used for voice
communication. (1 byte in an STM–N frame corresponds to a bitrate of 64 kbit/s).
It permits to make a telephone call between maintenance people. The standards do not give
information about how to use this byte.
F1 byte
The name of this byte is USER CHANNEL. Similar to the E1 byte it is also used for voice (or
data) communication.
It permits to make a telephone call between operators for example if a physical alarm
condition occurs. The standards do not give information about how to use this byte.
B2 bytes
These bytes permit the ERROR MONITORING of the multiplex section.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity N x 24 (BIP–N x 24) code, and
even parity. N shows the STM–N order frame. Thus BIP–24 for STM–1, BIP–96 for STM–4,
and BIP–384 for STM–16. The general format of the polynomial is xn+x0, here n=24.
When information is sent : the BIP–Nx24 is calculated over all bits of the previous STM–N
frame except of the first three rows of the SOH (this is the RSOH), and it is put in the B2
bytes of the actual STM–N frame before scrambling.
When information is received : the BIP–Nx24 is recalculated, and if the calculated value
differs from the received value it is a sign of an error block (cfr. usage of M1 byte).
K1 and K2 bytes
These are bytes for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING. They control the automatic
protection switching across a set of multiplex sections organised as a protection group.
Bits 6,7, and 8 of the K2 byte carry the Remote Defect Indicator (RDI) signal.
This signal is sent to the transmit end (upstream) to indicate that the receiving end detected
(downstream) an incoming section failure or received an Alarm Indication Signal (AIS).
The RDI signal has the value 110 in the respective bits. (Figure 25)
AIS
MUX MUX
The purpose of protection switching is to protect the protection group against cable cuts, but
it also protects against failure of the optical interface and some of the multiplex section
terminating circuitry. Generally, N working multiplex sections are associated with one
protection multiplex section, to form a 1: N multiplex section protection group.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
SDH networks mostly use 1+1 protection mechanism. A possible configuration is, when two
identical rings (fibers) form the network. One fibre is the Active ring, the other fibre is the
Protection ring. They work in opposite directions. Each source transmits the information
(STM–N frame) on both fibres. The receivers monitor the signals on both fibres, and they
select the better signal of the two.
This automatic protection switching ability of the SDH networks largely increase their
reliability and it is considered as a very important characteristic of them. It is also referred to
as SELF HEALING .
Figure 26 shows the principles of protection switching for a typical ring network.
Active fibre
Protection fibre
Transmitter
Transmitter
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Receiver
Receiver
Multiplexer A
Multiplexer B
Transmitter
Receiver Multiplexer C
An example:
On a full duplex path between multiplexer A and multiplexer C, information flows from A to
C clockwise from A through B to C over the Active fibre. Information from C to A also flows
over the same Active fibre clockwise, directly from C to A. If a fibre break–down occurs
between A and C, the information does not arrive to A over the Active fibre any longer.
A detects the loss of information from C, and it switches over automatically to the Protection
fibre to receive the information from the opposite direction.
A response time better than 50 msec is required to avoid the loss of telephone calls during
protection switching.
D4 – D12 bytes
The name of these bytes is embedded DATA COMMUNICATION CHANNEL. These bytes,
with a total bitrate of 576 kbit/s, carry data messages between multiplex sections for
management purposes. Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) management
entities can communicate through this channel. So it has a similar purpose to that of the
DCC of the RSOH.
S1 byte
The bits 5 to 8 of this byte are used to carry the SYNCHRONISATION STATUS MESSAGE.
Four synchronisation levels that are defined by recommendations are indicated by defined
bit patterns. These are: 0010 for G.811 , 0100 for G.812transit , 1000 for G.812local , and
1011 for Synchronous Equipment Timing Source (SETS).
Two additional bit patterns are assigned, 0000 to indicate that the quality of the
synchronisation is unknown, and 1111 to indicate that the section can not be used for
synchronisation.
Other bit patterns are operator defined (reserved).
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
M1 byte
This byte is (provisionally) allocated to carry the multiplex section Remote Error Indication
(REI). It contains the number of errored blocks that were detected by the B2 bytes
calculation. ( Figure 27 )
Figure 27 : B2 and REI
MUX MUX
E2 byte
The name of this byte is ENGINEERING ORDER WIRE channel, and it is used for voice
communication.
So it has a similar purpose to that of the E1 byte of the RSOH. It permits to make a
telephone call between maintenance people located at the multiplex section termination. The
standards do not give information about how to use this byte.
Z1 and Z2 bytes
Their function is not defined yet.
Bytes noted with X
These bytes are RESERVED for NATIONAL USAGE, which means that the telecom
operator can decide how to use them.
2.6 POINTERS
SDH assigns a basic number of bytes for a tributary or administrative signal, in the 125µsec
time period. For example, 32 bytes are assigned for a 2048 kbit/s signal.
This number of bytes are nominally correct, however, in the real network the phase of an
incoming 2048 kbit/s signal is marginally more or marginally less than that of the SDH
equipment (add/drop multiplexer, cross–connect).
To solve the problem of this phase variation, SDH includes a mechanism that permits from
time to time to add or to remove a number of bytes in the 125µsec time period . This
mechanism is the FREQUENCY JUSTIFICATION with POINTER ADJUSTMENT or the
POINTER MECHANISM.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
All types of signals, thus the virtual containers, both in the AUs and in the TUs can be
located and accessed directly through the pointers. It is this pointer mechanism, together
with the synchronous multiplexing structure, that permits us to do add/drop multiplexing.
Thus it is a very important characteristic of SDH.
The AU Pointer permits to locate the VC –4 or VC–3 inside of the AU frame through a
flexible and dynamic procedure. This is necessary, because the VC may ”float” inside of the
AU frame (payload of STM–N). ( Figure 29)
The ”floating” is caused by the variation of the frame phase between the incoming higher
order VC and the locally generated frame phase of the multiplexing section. The locally
generated frame phase is the reference of the outgoing STM–N frame. ( Figure 28 )
STM–1 STM–1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
1 270 1 270
1 1
RSOH RSOH
4 AU PTR 4 AU PTR
MSOH MSOH
9 9
VC–4
VC–4
The AU Pointer fills the space of the 4th row of the overhead in the STM–N frame.
Three types of bytes (H1, H2, and H3) contain the AU Pointer. ( Figure 31)
Remark : The case, when three VC–3s form an AUG is typical for SONET networks.
SONET and ETSI SDH form the internal structure of the AUG differently. More about this in
chapter 2.10.
The two bytes , H1 and H2, of the pointer operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 30 shows
it. The last 10 bits (bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which is a binary number
with a range of 0–782. It represents the offset between the AU Pointer position and the first
byte of the higher order VC. See Figure 29 and Figure 31 for this.
The offset is measured in 3–byte increments for the AU–4 Pointer, and in 1–byte increments
for the AU–3 Pointer. The AU Pointer bytes are not part of the offset value. For example, in
an AU–4, the AU Pointer value of 0 shows, that the VC–4 starts in the byte location that
immediately follows the last H3 byte. An AU–4 Pointer value of 87 shows, that the VC–4
starts three bytes after the K2 byte.
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
Note : The complete pointer value (H1 and H2) is set to all 1s, when an AIS occurs.
AU Pointer example:
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show AU type, value 10
Concatenation Indicator:
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S bits : not specified.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
1 negative justification positive justification
opportunity (3 bytes) opportunity (3 bytes)
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
– –
87 – 88
–
9 521 – –
1 522 –
125 µsec
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
782 – –
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3H3 0 – – 1 – – 86 – –
9
250 µsec
Y byte : 1001SS11 (S bits are not specified) 1 byte : 11111111
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
1 negative justification positive justification
opportunity( 3x1 byte) opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
4 H1 H1 H2 H2H2 H3 H3H3 0 0 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
H1 0
87 87 87 88
9 521 521
1 522 522
125 µsec
782782 782
9
250 µsec
b. Justification procedure
During the alignment process between the higher order path layer and the multiplex section
layer, the higher order VCs, which have to be multiplexed, are put in a buffer. ( Figure 28 )
When the buffer reaches its ”low fill” threshold, which corresponds to the fact, that the
incoming higher order VC arrives temporary slower than the rate of the outgoing STM–N
frame, then :
1. the phase of the outgoing higher order VC must be put back in time by one unit
relative to the STM–N frame. This means:
Transmission from the buffer is stopped during the unit time, which is equivalent
to the transmission of dummy information in the three positive justification bytes
of the AUG for VC–4, or in one of the three positive justification bytes of the AUG
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
for a VC–3 .
This bytes are marked ”0” on Figure 31.
Adjusting one unit is equal to three bytes for AU–4, and one byte for AU–3 as seen
in 2.6.2.a.
Remark: Majority voting means, that that information is accepted, which occurs in the majority of the
bits.
VC–4
pointer value = A
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
three positive
pointer value : I bits inverted justification bytes
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value = A+ 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value = A+1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
When the buffer reaches its ”high fill” threshold, which corresponds to the fact, that the
incoming higher order VC arrives temporary faster than the rate of the outgoing STM–N
frame, then :
1. the phase of the outgoing higher order VC must be put forward in time by one
unit relative to the STM–N frame. This means:
VC payload information is transmitted in the three negative justification bytes of
the AUG for VC–4, or in one of the three negative justification bytes of the AUG
for a VC–3. This bytes are marked ”H3” on Figure 31.
Adjusting one unit is equal to three bytes for AU–4, and one byte for AU–3 as seen in
2.6.2.a.
VC–4
pointer value = A
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
H1 Y Y H2 X X
VC–4
pointer value = A – 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value = A – 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
When it is necessary to make a specific, non–unit change of the pointer value the New Data
Flag (NDF) indicator is used. This indicator fills the first 4 bits, marked ”N” of the AU Pointer,
as Figure 30 shows it.
Normally the value of NDF is 0110, which means that the indicator is disabled. When the
non–unit change of the pointer has to be signalled, the value of NDF is set to 1001. This
means, that the indicator is enabled. The other bits of the AU Pointer show the new pointer
value.
The new pointer value is immediately accepted, if al least three out of the four N–bits are
correct (majority voting).
In the next STM–N frame, the NDF is reset to 0110.
Also applies here, that pointer adjustments must be separated by at least three STM–N
frame times.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Remark : If a receiver detects a new pointer value without previous positive or negative
justification, or the NDF indication, it rejects it. However if the next three STM–N frames
contain the same new pointer value, it will accept it.
AU–4 Concatenation
Concatenation of AU–4s permits to transport payloads larger than the capacity of one VC–4.
In this case, the payload is put into a number of AU–4s, which directly follow each other. The
concatenation indicator ( Figure 30 ) shows, that this multi C–4 payload must be held
together.
X concatenated AU–4s form an AU–4–Xc. Only the first AU–4 contains the AU–4 Pointer, all
other AU–4s of the AU–4–Xc have the Concatenation Indicator set in their pointer position.
However, to maintain bit sequence integrity over the whole payload, the same pointer
actions are applied for each of the AU–4s as for the first one.
The pointer offset unit for an AU–4–Xc is X times 3 bytes.
The number of AU–4s that are concatenated is only limited by the maximum payload
quantity of the SDH structure.
A particular case is AU–4–4c, when 4 AU–4s are concatenated. It is recommended for the
transport of B–ISDN payloads. See chapter 2.9. on this.
The transport mechanism of lower order VCs inside of the higher order VC is the Tributary
Unit. The TU can ”float” inside of the higher order VC, similar to the AU that can float inside
of the STM–N frame. Consequently, the TU Pointer mechanism is basically the same as the
AU Pointer mechanism (positive and negative justification, New Data Flag).
Tributary Unit Pointers are : TU–3 Pointer, TU–2 Pointer, and TU–1 Pointers.
a. TU–3 Pointer
Three TUG–3s fit into the payload of the VC–4, as shown on Figure 21.
The TU–3 Pointer permits to locate the VC – 3 inside of the TU–3 frame through a flexible
and dynamic procedure.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Because three VC–3s fit in a VC–4, three separate TU–3 Pointers are assigned in an AU–4.
The three pointers operate autonomously.
Three types of bytes (H1, H2, and H3) contain the TU–3 Pointer. ( Figure 35)
They have exactly the same function and mode of operation as those of the AU–3 and AU–4
Pointers.
The two bytes , H1 and H2, of the pointer operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 34 shows it.
The last 10 bits (bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which is a binary number
with a range of 0–764. It represents the offset between the pointer and the first byte of the
VC–3.
The offset is measured in 1–byte increments. Figure 35 shows the TU–3 Pointer offset
numbering.
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
Note : The complete pointer value (H1 and H2) is set to all 1s, when an AIS occurs.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 10
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
S bits: not specified.
If the TUG–3 carries an assembly of TUG–2s the TU–3 Pointer is set to Null Pointer
Indicator, which means that the TU–3 Pointer is not used.
VC–4
ÉÉÉ
1 261
ÉÉÉ
1 P H1 H1 H1 positive justification
a opportunity ( 3x1 byte )
t
ÉÉÉ H2 H2 H2
ÉÉÉ
H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
h
ÉÉÉ
O 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
v Fixed
negative justification
e stuff
ÉÉÉ
opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
r-
h
ÉÉÉ
ÉÉÉ
e
ÉÉÉ
a
9 d 593 594 594 594
125 µsec
1
ÉÉÉ H1 H1 H1 595 595 595
596
P
ÉÉÉ H2 H2 H2 763 764 764 764
ÉÉÉ
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
O H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
ÉÉÉ
H Fixed 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
stuff
ÉÉÉ
b. TU–2, TU–12 and TU–11 Pointer
Four TU–2s, (TUG–2s) or TU–1s transmitted after each other form a multiframe.
Consequently, the multiframe time period is 500µsec. ( Figure 37 )
The TU–2 Pointer permits to locate the VC – 2 inside of TU–2 multiframes through a flexible
and dynamic procedure.
The TU–1 Pointer permits to locate the VC –1 inside of TU–1 multiframes through a flexible
and dynamic procedure. The TU–1 pointer is only used with floating mapping.
The ” Vx” bytes carry the TU Pointer ( Figure 37 ), where x is equal to the position of the
particular TU frame inside of the multiframe, thus 1, 2, 3 or 4. For the position of the TU
Pointers and Vx bytes, see also Figure 45 and Figure 46.
The V1 and V2 bytes operate as one 16–bit word, as Figure 36 shows it. The last 10 bits
(bits 7–16) of this word carry the pointer value, which has a different range for each type of
TU. It represents the offset between the V2 byte and the first byte of the VC
(V5 byte – see chapter 2.7.2 ). The TU Pointer bytes are not calculated in the offset value.
The offset is measured in 1–byte increments.
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
0 1 1 0 0 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 00 I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 427 <–––––– I
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 10 I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 139 <–––––– I
0 1 1 0 1 1 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 11 I –––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 103 <–––––– I
Concatenation Indicator:
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S bits : not specified.
106 34 25
250 µsec neg. just.
TU nr.3 V3 (1 byte)
pos. just.
(1 byte )
107 35 26
TU–2 concatenation
TU–2 concatenation is defined, because in the future, transmission systems will also have to
carry new services at bit rates different than those of PDH. Such typical services are
high–speed data and intermediate video rates.
The TU Concatenation Indicator is used as it is explained for the AU concatenation.
The Path Overhead (POH) ( Figure 38) permits to check the quality of the path layer at the
path termination. Two types of Path Overheads (POH) are defined, the Higher order POH
and the Lower order POH.
POH payload
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Virtual Container
Higher order POH is associated with the VC–4 in the SDH system, and with the VC–3 in the
SONET system.
The internal structure of the POH is the same for both cases, as Figure 39 shows it.
1 261 bytes 1 85
J1 J1
B3 B3
C2 C2
G1 G1
F2 F2
H4 H4
Z3 Z3
K3 K3
Z5 Z5
VC–4 VC–3
J1 byte
This byte offers the PATH TRACE function.
The source, at the beginning of the path, repetitively inserts in this byte a string, the high
order Path Access Point Identifier (PAPI). The receiver at the path termination compares the
received string with the expected value, so it can be sure that it is connected to the intended
source.
The standards recommend a 64–byte free format string or a 16–byte E.164 format string.
B3 byte
The B3 byte permits the ERROR MONITORING of the path.
The error monitoring function uses the Bit Interleaved Parity 8 (BIP–8) code, and even parity.
When information is sent: the BIP–8 is calculated over all bits of the previous
VC (VC–4 or VC–3) before scrambling, and it is put in the B3 byte of the actual VC before
scrambling. When information is received: BIP–8 is recalculated.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
C2 byte
The C2 byte is the path SIGNAL LABEL, and it identifies the VC payload type.
– 1: VC path is equipped, non–specific payload. This value is used for all payloads
that do not need to be detailed.
– 3: locked TU mode
The 247 other possible values of the C2 byte remain for future usage.
G1 byte
The G1 byte is the PATH STATUS byte. It carries information back to the VC path source
about the condition and performance of the path termination.
REI RDI ––
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bits 1–4: contain the Remote Error Indication (REI), which shows the number of errors
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
F2 and Z3 bytes
This USER CHANNEL byte permits user communication between path elements.
H4 byte
The H4 byte is a general POSITION INDICATOR. It can be payload specific, then it can
show the position of the VC–1 or VC–2 multiframes. (Figure 41)
POH Payload
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
6 H4: 00
9
1 TU PTR (V1)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 01
6
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
9
1 TU PTR (V2)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 10
6
9
1 TU PTR (V3)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 11
6
9
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
K3 byte
Bits 1 to 4 are used for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS), to protect the
higher order path level.
The allocation of the other bits of this byte is for further study.
Z5 byte
The Z5 byte is a NETWORK OPERATOR byte, used for specific management purposes.
The lower order virtual containers (VC–11, VC–12, VC–2) carry a one byte POH. This POH
is the V5 byte. It is the first byte of the multiframe structure, so it occurs only in every
500µsec. ( A multiframe structure is an assembly of four VCs, as explained for the TU–1 and
TU–2 Pointers in chapter 2.6.3.b.)
But because each VC carries a one byte overhead, there are three other overhead bytes
that occur during the 500µsec multiframe time. They are, respectively, the J2, Z6, and K4
bytes. These POH bytes are only used in floating mode.
Figure 42 gives a general view about the lower order POH and TU Pointers.
TU nr.1 V1
TU nr.2 V2
TU nr.3 V3
V5
TU nr.4 V4
125 µsec
J2
250 µsec
Z6
375 µsec
K4
500 µsec
V5 byte
The V5 byte supplies the function of ERROR MONITORING, SIGNAL LABEL, and
PATH STATUS. ( Figure 43 )
Bit 3: contains the Remote Error Indication (REI) signal, which shows if errors are
received in the BIP–2 code .
It is set to 1 if one or more errors occurred. It is set to 0 if no error occurred.
Bit 5–7: these bits are the path SIGNAL LABEL. Possible values:
– 000: VC path is not equipped.
Note : any value other than 0 of these bits shows an equipped condition.
– 001: VC path is equipped, non–specific payload.
– 010: asynchronous, optional usage
– 011: bit synchronous, optional usage
– 100: byte synchronous, optional usage
– other values are reserved for future usage
J2 byte
This byte offers the PATH TRACE function, similar to that of the J1 byte of the higher order
POH.
The source, at the beginning of the path, repetitively inserts in this byte a string, the low
order Path Access Point Identifier (PAPI). The receiver at the path termination compares the
received string with the expected value, so it can be sure that it is connected to the intended
source.
Z6 byte
This byte has a similar function as the Z5 byte in the higher order POH.
K4 byte
This byte has a similar function as the K3 byte in the higher order POH.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Bits 1 to 4 are used for AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS), to protect the
lower order path level.
The allocation of the other bits of this byte is for further study.
The figures in this chapter together with Figure 21 and Figure 22 will help to make a final
summary of the possible structures we can find in SDH.
9
r
o
w
s
The TUG–2 with its 9 rows and 12 columns (bytes) was chosen because it can be arranged
as 4 groups of 3 columns or 3 groups of 4 columns, which correspond respectively to 4
groups of TU–11s and 3 groups of TU–12s. Figure 45 shows how the 12 columns are
assigned to 4 TU–11s, to 3 TU–12s, or a single TU–2. The TU–1s are multiplexed by
one–byte interleaving.
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
9
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
r
o
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
w
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
s
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÅÅ
ÂÂÇÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
É
ÂÂ
12 bytes
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
12 bytes
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
Ê
12 bytes
ÅÅ Ç
TU Pointer byte
ÉÉ ÂÂ
ÅÅ TU nr. 1 Ç TU nr. 2 ÉÉ TU nr. 3 ÂÂ TU nr. 4
12 bytes
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V1
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ Å
TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÅÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
9
TU nr. 1
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
r
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÇÉ
o
w TU nr. 2
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ s
É
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
Ç
ÇÅÅ
Ç
ÉÉ
ÇÇÇ
ÅÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÅÉÉ
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÇÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÉÉ
Ç
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÅ ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ ÅÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
V4 ÅÅ
ÅÅ Ç
ÉÉ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ Å
ÇÇ
ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
375 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÅÇÇ
ÉÉ ÉÉ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 500 µsec
P P
9
r C–3
O O
o
w H H
s
85 bytes 85 bytes
N H1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
P H2
9 I H3 P
r C–3
O
o
w H
s
86 bytes 86 bytes
fixed stuff
P P
9
r C–4
O O
o
w H H
s
fixed stuff
The Administrative Units AU–3 and AU–4 transport the higher order virtual containers VC–3
and VC–4 respectively, together with their respective frame offsets coded in the AU Pointer.
( Figure 50 )
Remark : the content of the AU–3 is equal to the VC–3 plus two columns of fixed stuff.
P
9 O
AU–Pointer H
r AU–Pointer VC–4
o
w
s
1 30 59 87
87 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
9
r AU–Pointers AU–Pointer
o
w
s
The STM–N contains the Section Overhead (SOH=RSOH+MSOH), Nx9 bytes of the AU
Pointer(s) and a structure of 9 rows by Nx261 columns.
The N AUGs are one–byte interleaved, and they have a fixed position inside of the STM–N
frame. ( Figure 52 )
AU–Pointer AU–Pointer
1 11..122..233...344..4
RSOH
AU–Pointers
H1H1..H1H2H2..H2 H3H3 H3
MSOH
260260...260261261..261
9
Figure 53 shows the structure of the STM–N frame Section Overhead. We can note, that
certain bytes are present for all the N of the STM–1 frames, others are present only for the
first STM–1 frame.
1 Nx9
AU Pointers
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6 M
S
O
D7 D8 D9 H
P
9
r O
C–4–Xc fixed stuff
o
w
s H
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
ATM, the Asynchronous Transfer Mode, was chosen by CCITT in 1990 for the transfer mode
of the Broadband ISDN network.
ATM defines, that all type of information (voice, data, video) has to be carried in the network
in form of cells. An ATM cell is 53 bytes long, it consists of a 5 bytes header and of a 48
bytes payload part. ( Figure 55 )
Header Payload
1 56 53 bytes
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
An adaptation function maps the ATM cells into the SDH transmission system.
It inserts zero cells if the offered rate is not sufficient to fully load the SDH capacity, and
restricts the ATM source if its rate is too high. Thus, the actual transmitted cellstream has a
rate that is synchronous with the SDH Container in which it is transported, although the
information rate is defined by the ATM source.
To prevent the ATM cell payload to accidentally contain the SDH frame alignment or ATM
cell delineation information stream, the payload part of the ATM cell is scrambled. This also
protects the SDH network and the users against malicious users. The standards recommend
a self–synchronising scrambler of generating polynomial x43+1.
Mapping of ATM cells are done mainly into VC–4 and VC–4–4c Containers. This second
type, concatenated Container is a special case of VC–4–Xc, where X=4.
(see end of chapters 2.8.7. and 2.6.2.)
Note: In principle ATM cells can be mapped into any type of Virtual Container.
fixed
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
POH stuff
J1
B3 ...
C2
G1 ATM cell
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5 ...
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
To make a summary :
This chapter briefly describes the most important characteristics of an SDH network,
which means network configuration, network protection, timing aspects, and physical
interfaces .
The first level represents the backbone network which is implemented as a mesh network
to provide flexible traffic routing and network protection. It operates typically with STM–16
equipment.
The second level represents the regional network. It operates typically with STM–4
equipment.
The third level represents the local network, which interfaces with the access network. It
operates typically with STM–1 equipment.
Here is an example to show what happens with the information that user A sends to user B.
Follow the way of the information on Figure 57. (Remark : this figure is limited to the
transmission equipment, so it doesn’t show the digital exchanges.)
The originating user, A transmits its information to user B, who is situated several hundreds
of kilometres away. The signal of user A, together with other users’ plesiochronous signals
(2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s), arrives to the SDH network.
In the local network the STM–1 frame that contains user A’s signal travels toward the
gateway to the regional network. Meanwhile this signal passes through a number of
Add/Drop multiplexers, where other plesiochronous signals are dropped and added.
When the STM–1 frame that contains user A’s signal arrives to the regional network, it is
added into the STM–4 frame format of that regional network. This STM–4 frame then travels
toward the gateway to the backbone network. At this gateway this, and other STM–4 frames
are multiplexed into an STM–16 frame. At this point in the regional network, and in the
backbone network Cross–connect equipment is used.
In the backbone network, the STM–16 frame that contains user A’s signal is forwarded to
the cross–connect equipment, which forms the gateway toward that regional network, which
is connected to user B’s local network.
Further the same actions, naturally in a reverse order, take place as explained above.
Cross
STM–16 Cross
Connect
Connect
Meshed Network Backbone
network
Cross Cross
Connect Connect
Cross
Regional
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Connect
Cross
Add Connect network
gateway Drop
Mux gateway Add
Drop Add
Mux Drop
STM–4 Mux
Add Add
Drop Drop
Add
Ring Network
Mux Mux
Drop
Add
Mux Drop
Mux
gateway
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ Add
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Local
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Drop Add gateway
Mux Drop Add network
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add Add
Mux Drop
Drop Drop
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Mux
Mux Mux
Add
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add- Drop STM–1
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Drop
Mux Ring Network
Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add-
Drop
Mux
Mux
Mux
user B Access
user A Mux
Mux Mux
As it was explained in chapter 2, this equipment permits to add and to drop tributary signals
to and from a passing STM frame. ( Figure 58 )
STM–1 STM–1
. . .
Remark: The minimum granularity that the SDH network can handle is the bitrate of
2 Mbit/s (1.5 Mbit/s). Consequently, information can not arrive with a smaller
bitrate to the access multiplexer. For example, this is the case of a telephone
call, whose bitrate is 64 kbit/s. Therefore telephone signals or other signals less
than 2 Mbit/s have to be multiplexed into a signal, which is equal to one of the
defined hierarchy levels, thus 2 Mbit/s or more, before they arrive to the SDH
network.
DXC equipment is usually used in the backbone network, or at the gateway between the
regional and backbone network. This equipment has a very similar functionality to that of the
add/drop multiplexer ( Figure 59 ).
However, it is bigger, and it has more ports than an ADM. For example it can have up to 192
STM–1 equivalent ports, which means up to 12000 2 Mbit/s ports or a corresponding mixture
of ports with different bit rates. Another difference compared to the ADM is the internal
connection possibilities.
. .
STM–1 . .
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
. . STM–1
...
c. Line Equipment
This multiplexer is basically a higher order multiplexer, which grooms STM–1 frames into
STM–4 frames ( Figure 60 ), or STM–4 frames into STM–16 frames.
STM–1
STM–1
.
. . STM–4
. .
.
STM–1
Figure 61 gives an overview about the different types of SDH network elements. Note, that
the biggest difference among these network elements is in their size and in their flexibility
concerning the connection function.
Cross–Connect
Add/Drop mux
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Line equipment
Relative complexity
3.1.3 EXAMPLES
Rings of ADMs play an important role in the SDH network architecture. Therefore, when we
design complex networks, it becomes very important how we interconnect these rings.
Figure 62 until Figure 64 show some possible ring architectures, and their interconnections.
ADM ADM
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
Network availability and efficient treatment of network failures are very important aspects of
the SDH network. Therefore, different strategies exist to solve the possible problems. These
strategies depend on the type of failure that can occur and on the level of network
availability required.
1 1
J J
K .. K ..
. .
N N
EPS (Equipment Protection Switching) : this protection is done at unit level. It occurs after an
internal failure, like card missing, card mismatch, no
response from card, etc., or after other specifically
defined failure condition.
APS (Automatic Protection Switching) : It occurs after a multiplex section failure.
PPS (Path Protection Switching) : This protection is done at path level, and mainly used in
ring networks. It occurs after a path failure.
Protection
Failure
Example Type Redundancy
Cause:
– fire
– energy
break–down
Figure 67.
Path restoration and link restoration are the two main procedures to support network
restoration.
Path restoration is based on the principle that failures identify the paths where the failure
occurred, and so the failed network connections. These network connections are then
restored by alternative paths.
Path restoration is relatively resource efficient but requires information of a broad scope. For
example: it requires the actions of the network management system, which controls the
routing map in each of the involved DXC equipment, to do the rerouting.
Link restoration is based on the principle that failures are related to links, where they occur.
These links are then replaced by other links.
Link restoration is therefore a simpler procedure than path restoration, but it is generally less
efficient.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Because of the importance of ring networks in the SDH, this chapter gives some information
about this special type of network configuration.
Figure 68 shows the unidirectional ring network, where the transmitted traffic and the traffic
to be received travel in the same direction over the active fibre.
The protection fibre can carry either the same information, or empty STM–N frames, or
low–priority traffic.
Figure 26 also shows an example of a unidirectional ring, with protection switching.
Active fibre
ADM
Protection fibre
ADM ADM
ADM
Figure 69 shows a two–fiber bidirectional ring, where the transmitted traffic and the traffic to
be received travel in opposite directions, respectively over the transmission fibre and over
the reception fibre. Because both fibres carry active traffic, half of the bandwidth have to be
reserved for protection, to permit to reroute the traffic in case of failure in one part of the ring.
Four–fiber bidirectional rings can also be built. In such a ring one pair of fibres
is reserved for protection.
Transmission fibre
ADM
Reception fibre
ADM ADM
ADM
We can also consider link protection and path protection in ring networks.
Link protection means, that the failure is detected on both sides of the link (multiplex
section), and the STM–N signal is rerouted to the protection fiber. ( Figure 70 )
ADM
ADM ADM
ADM
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Path protection is done the way explained earlier. Traffic is sent simultaneously on both,
active and protection, fibers. The receiver selects that fiber, which provides the better quality
signal. Thus, path protection is only done in unidirectional ring networks.
Bidirectional rings are mainly used for balanced traffic between each node, for example in
regional networks.
Unidirectional rings with path protection are more applicable for local networks, where traffic
is often directed to a specific node.
It is likely, that high speed, backbone SDH networks have a meshed structure.
Two protection types are used:
– traffic division;
– traffic duplication (path protection).
50% DXC
traffic ADM
50% ADM
traffic DXC
50% DXC
traffic ADM
50%
ADM traffic
50% Traffic division with 1+1 APS
traffic
50% ADM
traffic DXC
ADM
100% DXC
traffic 0
100% 0
traffic DXC
ADM
100% DXC
traffic ADM
100%
ADM traffic
100% Traffic duplication with 1+1 APS
traffic
100% ADM
traffic DXC
The name of the transmission network, Synchronous DH, already indicates that
synchronisation is handled with particular care in this network.
So, this chapter briefly tells about the problems of timing and synchronisation in the SDH
network.
A digital signal can be considered as binary data where each bit occurs at a discrete point in
time. The two characteristics of this digital signal are the data value itself and the point in
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Regular clock
The regular clock has all its expected discrete instances evenly spaced in time. ( Figure 73 )
Such a clock is defined by its phase parameter p(n), which is in proportion with the basic
clock period:
p(n) = 2 πnt0
where p: phase, n: the nth clock pulse, t0: clock period
Gapped clock
A gapped clock is generally derived from a regular clock. They both have the same clock
period, but the gapped clock has a lower average frequency. This lower average frequency
is a result of the gaps left in the clock signals of the regular clock. This also explains the
name – gapped clock. ( Figure 73 )
Gapped clocks are very important in the SDH network. Payloads within the SDH frame are
timed by gapped clocks.
For example, the VC–4 uses a gapped clock derived from the STM–N regular clock. The
VC–12 uses a gapped clock derived from the VC–4 gapped clock.
Frame phase
An additional clock, derived from the regular clock, to mark the start of each frame.
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË STM–1 regular clock
t0
72 missing STM–1 regular clock pulses : gap for RSOH and MSOH
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË t0
VC–4 gapped clock
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Jitter is the short–term variation of the significant instants of a digital signal from their ideal
positions in time.
Wander is the long–term variation of the significant instants of a digital signal from their ideal
positions in time.
Jitter and wander are the two main parameters which describe the variations that can occur
on an ideal clock signal. Traditionally, they were separated on basis of their origin. Jitter is
produced by regenerators and multiplexer justification schemes, wander is produced by
temperature cycling effects in cables.
SDH can produce clock signal variations that are not easy to classify as either jitter or
wander according to this distinction. Therefore, we use the general concept of
phase variation, which covers both jitter and wander.
Remark: however, the terms jitter and wander are still used in the SDH, but the distinction
between them is not based anymore on their origin, but on how the network handles them.
If phase variations occur, the actual times p’(n) when the clock pulses of the transported
signal occur are described as:
p’(n) = p(n) + e(n)
where p’: actual phase, p: expected phase, e(n): error, n: the nth clock pulse,
It is the error e(n) that defines the quality of a clock signal. E(n) is the measure of the phase
variation, so if e(n) is equal to 0, no phase variation occurs.
clock signal
p(0)+ e(0) p(2)+e(2) p(4)+e(4) p(6)+e(6) p(8)+e(8) time with phase variation
Phase variations in the SDH network are handled by the pointer adjustment mechanism, as
chapter 2.6 described it.
The main reason of the pointer adjustments is the clock noise of the exchange clock. At a
bitrate of 150 Mbit/s, it can cause pointer adjustments in every few seconds.
Figure 75 illustrates the situation.
Therefore, it is very important for the synchronisation of the SDH network to limit the clock
noise.
Generally, the phase variation e(n) is represented in a graphic form, which shows the e(n)
variation in function of the time. ( Figure 76 )
e(n)
Time
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
When standardisation organisations have to specify the clocks, which are suitable for the
synchronisation of SDH equipment, they also have to specify the clock noise parameter(s).
The proposed parameter is the Time Variance (TVAR) parameter, which is also known as
Allan Variance. The TVAR is the square of the second differences between samples of the
clock noise. It tries to give statistical estimates of e(n) over units of time (t). t is normally in
nanoseconds (ns). ( Figure 77 )
reference Time
A1 A2 A3
t t
In the SDH network all equipment is synchronised to a master clock. Consequently, all SDH
equipment must contain a slave clock to synchronise all the outgoing STM–N line signals
and the pointer processors.
In the SDH network two types of SDH slave clock are used :
– in the regenerators, as described in G.958;
– in the cross–connects and add/drop multiplexers, as described in G.81s.
A main node slave clock can filter more clock noise, but it also adds more clock noise.
Main nodes
Local nodes
Main nodes
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Local nodes
SDH is primarily an optical networking standard. Therefore, this chapter is about optical
interfaces. However, because we can also build an SDH network on radio links, some
attention is also given to the radio interfaces.
The optical fibre medium is a glass cylinder surrounded by a cladding glass tube. (Figure 80)
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
A very important parameter of an optical fibre is the refractive index (n). It is the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum (c0) to the speed of light in the medium (cx),
thus n= c0 /cx.
The refractive index of vacuum is n0=1.
The core and the cladding have different refractive indexes. They are always chosen that
ncore ≥ncladding. This is a condition for total reflection at the edge between the core and the
cladding.
See Figure 81 for reflection and refraction of light.
normal of normal of
incidence incidence
reflected ray
medium medium
with n1 with n1
medium medium
with n2 with n2
refracted ray
Reflection of light Refraction of light
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
The refractive index profile is a curve of the refractive index (n) over the
cross section (r) of the optical fiber.
n n
n1 n1
n2 n2
n0 n0
r r
core core
cladding cladding
cladding
core
light single mode fibre
cladding
core
light multi mode fibre
step index profile
cladding
core
multi mode fibre
light graded index profile
Not all light waves pass through the optical fibre with the same efficiency. The attenuation of
the light waves depends also on their wavelength. The range of wavelengths that pass
through optical fibres with little loss, and consequently are suitable for optical transmission
are called optical windows. The most commonly used windows are around the
wavelengths of 850nm, 1300nm, and 1550nm.
Figure 84 shows a typical example for single mode fibre.
Loss
(dB/km)
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Dispersion is an other factor that reduces the transmission quality. Because of dispersion,
light pulses in the optical fibre broaden temporally ( Figure 85 ).
The total dispersion consists of:
– modal dispersion: mostly occurs in multi mode step index fibres;
– material dispersion;
– waveguide dispersion : mostly occurs in single mode fibres.
The combination of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion is the
chromatic dispersion.
The recommendation G.957 about optical interfaces specifies optical transmitter, optical
receiver, and optical path characteristics.
The optical path is defined between the reference points S and R. ( Figure 86 )
∇ ∇
optical plug optical plug
(transmitter) O (receiver)
S R
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Interoffice
Application Intra–office
Short haul Long haul
Rec. G.652
fiber type Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.653
Rec. G.654
* : parameter value in function of the application, bit rate, fiber type : A–N.x
A: application (I, S, L) N: STM level (1,4,16)
x: fiber/optical source type (1: 1310nm/G.652. 2:1550nm/ G.652. or 1550nm/G.654. 3: 1550nm/ G.653.)
The OPTICAL PATH between the reference points is specified by: (see also Figure 89 )
–attenuation range also known as optical budget: for each application, attenuation
is specified as a range, characteristic of the different application distances.
Remark: definition of attenuation is A (λ) = 10 log ( P1(λ) / P2(λ) ) in dB,
where λ : wavelength P: optical power.
– reflections: are caused by refractive index discontinuities along the optical path.
This discontinuities occur because of splices, connectors, or other passive
components. Reflections can decrease system performance, thus they must be
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
The OPTICAL interfaces at the TRANSMITTER and at the RECEIVER are specified by:
– extinction ratio : the ratio between the ”on” power and the ”off” power.
EX = 10 log 10 (A / B) where EX: extinction ratio,
A : average optical power level for a logical 1,
B : average optical power level for a logical 0.
– receiver overload : the maximum value of average received optical power at reference
point R that the receiver can accept and still maintain
the required quality (BER 1x10–10).
– optical path power penalty: the receiver must tolerate an optical path penalty of
maximum 1dB ( 2dB for L–16.2.). The optical path penalty is related to the
reflections and dispersions occurred over the optical path.
Minimum
attenuation
Maximum
attenuation
Receiver overload
Unit Values
Unit Values
In certain environments or under certain conditions it is interesting to use radio links in the
SDH transmission network.
For example :
– over difficult terrains: mountain areas, jungles, big rivers and lakes;
– for the access to the fibre network : the installation costs of fibre over the
”last mile” is too expensive, particularly if user doesn’t
need high capacity;
– as back–up of fibres in dangerous areas: areas with high possibility of
earthquakes, war zones;
– to close the loop in an SDH ring network:
in metropolitan areas, business parks;
– for usage in private networks.
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
When we use radio links, other difficulties need to be solved than if we use optical links.
For example:
– allocation of the available radio spectrum is needed:
this is done by international agreements;
– within the allocated spectrum, user channels also have to be allocated;
– interference tolerance levels have to be defined;
– have to limit (avoid) the interference with other systems:
for example with satellites;
– modulation techniques to be improved to increase bit rates (STM–16).
Electrical interfaces on coaxial cables are required primarily for backwards compatibility with
the already installed PDH network. Thus, the STM–1 electrical section interface is exactly
equivalent to the 140 Mbit/s interface already defined in G.703.
Optical Amplifier
Optical Amplifier Alcatel 1610 OA
G.812 Timing requirements at the outputs of slave clocks suitable for plesiochronous
operation of international digital links
G.81s Timing characteristics of slave clocks suitable for the operation in SDH
equipments
G.825 The control of jitter and wander within digital networks which are based on the
SDH
G.957 Optical interfaces for equipment and systems relating to the SDH
G.958 Digital line systems based on the SDH for use on optical fibre cables
ANNEX C : ABBREVIATIONS
C Container
CCITT International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
DC Direct Current
DCC Data Communication Channel
DXC Digital Cross Connect
TM Terminal Multiplexer
TMN Telecommunications Management Network
TU Tributary Group
TUG Tributary Unit Group
TVAR Time Variance (Allan Variance)
VC Virtual Container
MODULE CODE
GETE/1030
LIST OF TRANSPARENCIES
Higher quality
coax
High quality
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
coax
Thick coax
Thin coax
Mbit/s
2 8 34 140
2 x 8 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Network Network
node node
1 x 2 Mbit/s 2 x 2 Mbit/s
Network
node
45 Mbit/s
1000
90 Mbit/s
10 1.2 Gbit/s
2.5 Gbit/s
1
node node
Network
node
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
140 34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2
34 34 . .
. . 34 140
2
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
64 x 2 Mbit/s
ËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
ËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
ËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
ËËchannel 8 bits
ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ ËËË ÉÉ
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Frame 125µs
time
ËËË ÉÉÉ
ËËË = 8 bits
example: conversation 1 in channel 1
ÉÉÉ = 8 bits
example: conversation 3 in channel 30
= 8 bits
example: conversation 2 in channel 2
time
ADD/DROP multiplexer
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
0 64 64 64 64
1 9 10 270
1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
125 µsec
1 3 4 90
1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
125 µsec
Multiplex section
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Regenerator
section
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
CONTAINER
lower order
PATH OVERHEAD
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
higher order
PATH OVERHEAD
higher order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
AU PTR Payload
SECTION
OVERHEAD Synchronous Transport Module
byte interleaved
byte interleaved
byte interleaved
C–11 1,544
C–12 2,048
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
C–2 6,312
C–3 34,368
44,736
C–4 139,264
lower order
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Virtual Container
TU–1 TU–1
PTR PTR VC–1 VC–1
Virtual Container
AU–3 AU–3
PTR PTR VC–3 VC–3
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
TUG–3 TU–3 VC–3
x3
x7
x7 44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2 C–2
6,312 Mbit/s
x3
mapping
multiplexing
1,544 Mbit/s
139,264 Mbit/s
x3
x1
TUG–3 TU–3 VC–3
x7
C–3
44,736 Mbit/s
34,368 Mbit/s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
x1
TUG–2 TU–2 VC–2
x3
mapping
multiplexing
VC–11 C–11
1,544 Mbit/s
1 9 bytes
2 REGENERATOR
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
SECTION OVERHEAD
3
6
MULTIPLEXER
7
SECTION OVERHEAD
8
1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 X X
RSOH 2 B1 E1 F1 X X
3 D1 D2 D3
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
5 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
6 D4 D5 D6
MSOH
7 D7 D8 D9
9 S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2 X X
MUX MUX
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Protection fibre
Transmitter
Transmitter
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Receiver
Receiver
Multiplexer A
Multiplexer B
Transmitter
Receiver Multiplexer C
MUX MUX
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
MSOH MSOH
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
9 9
VC–4
VC–4
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
AU Pointer example:
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show AU type, value 10
Concatenation Indicator:
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S bits : not specified.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
1 negative justification positive justification
opportunity (3 bytes) opportunity (3 bytes)
4 H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
– –
87 – 88
–
9 521 – –
1 522 –
125 µsec
782 – –
Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 0 – 1 – – 86 – –
4 H1 Y –
9
250 µsec
Y byte : 1001SS11 (S bits are not specified) 1 byte : 11111111
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 270
1 negative justification positive justification
opportunity ( 3x1 byte) opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
4 H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 0 0 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
0
87 87 87 88
9 521 521
1 522 522
125 µsec
H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3 1 1 1 85 86 86 86
4 0 0 0
9
250 µsec
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
three positive
pointer value : I bits inverted justification bytes
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
VC–4
pointer value = A+ 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value = A+1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value: three negative
D bits inverted justification bytes
H1 Y Y H2 X X
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
VC–4
pointer value = A – 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
pointer value = A – 1
H1 Y Y H2 X X H3 H3 H3
VC–4
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 10
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
S bits: not specified.
ÉÉÉ
1 261
ÉÉÉ
1 P H1 H1 H1 positive justification
a opportunity ( 3x1 byte )
ÉÉÉ
t H2 H2 H2
ÉÉÉ
h H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
ÉÉÉ
O 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
v
ÉÉÉ
e Fixed negative justification
ÉÉÉ
r- stuff opportunity ( 3x1 byte)
ÉÉÉ
h
ÉÉÉ
e
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
a
9 d ÉÉÉ
ÉÉÉ
593 594 594 594
125 µsec
ÉÉÉ
1 H1 H1 H1 595 595 595 596
ÉÉÉ
H2 H2 H2 763 764 764 764
P
ÉÉÉ
O H3 H3 H3 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 83 83 83 84 84 84
H
ÉÉÉ
Fixed 85 85 85 86 86 86 87
ÉÉÉ
stuff
ÉÉÉ
N N N N S S I D I D I D I D I D
N bits : New Data Flag I bits : Increment bits (used at positive justification)
enabled: 1001 D bits : Decrement bit (used at negative justification)
disabled : 0110
0 1 1 0 0 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 00 I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 427 <––––––– I
0 1 1 0 1 0 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 10 I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 139 <––––––– I
0 1 1 0 1 1 PO IN TE R VA LU E
S bits : show TU type, value 10 I –––––––––> 10 bit pointer value : 0 to 103 <––––––– I
Concatenation Indicator:
1 0 0 1 S S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S bits : not specified.
106 34 25
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Virtual Container
B3 B3
C2 C2
G1 G1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
F2 F2
H4 H4
Z3 Z3
K3 K3
Z5 Z5
VC–4 VC–3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
1 TU PTR (V1)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 01
6
9
1 TU PTR (V2)
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 10
6
9
1 TU PTR (V3)
VC–3 / VC–4
H4: 11
6
9
1 TU PTR (V4)
VC–3 / VC–4
TU nr.2 V2
TU nr.3 V3
V5
TU nr.4 V4
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
125 µsec
J2
250 µsec
Z6
375 µsec
K4
500 µsec
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
r
o
w
s
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
9
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
r
o
w
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
s
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÂÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÂÂ ÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇ
ÉÉ ÊÊ
ÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊÊ
ÊÊÊ
ÊÊ
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ÅÅ Ç ÉÉ ÂÂ
TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V1
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ TU Pointer byte
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÅÅ TU nr. 1
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 9
ÅÅ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ ÇÇ TU nr. 2
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ r
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ o
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ w
ÉÉ TU nr. 3
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ s
ÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
É
ÅÅ
ÇÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
Å
ÇÇ
ÉÉÉÉ
ÇÇ
V2 ÅÅ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇÅ
ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
125 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
V3 ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅ ÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
250 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉ
ÅÅ
ÉÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅÅ
ÉÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÇÇÅ
ÇÇ
ÅÉÉ
ÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
375 µsec
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
V4
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÇÇ
ÅÅÉÉ
ÅÅ
ÇÇ
ÉÉ
ÅÉÉ
ÇÇ 500 µsec
P P
9
r O
C–3
O
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
o
w H H
s
85 bytes 85 bytes
N H1
P H2
9 I H3 P
r C–3
O
o
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
w H
s
86 bytes 86 bytes
fixed stuff
P P
9
r O
C–4
O
o
H
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
w H
s
fixed stuff
P
9 O
H
AU–Pointer
r AU–Pointer VC–4
o
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
w
s
1 30 59 87
87 bytes 261 bytes
fixed stuff
9
r AU–Pointers AU–Pointer
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
o
w
s
AU–Pointer AU–Pointer
1 11..122..233...344..4
RSOH
AU–Pointers
H1H1..H1H2H2..H2 H3H3 H3
MSOH
260260...260261261..261
9
AU Pointers
B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
D4 D5 D6 M
S
O
D7 D8 D9 H
s H
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
1 56 53 bytes
Z3
K3
Z5 ...
X–1 X x 260
X x 261 bytes
Cross Cross
Connect Connect
Cross
Connect Regional
Cross
Add Connect
network
gateway Drop
Mux gateway Add
Drop Add
Mux Drop
STM–4 Mux
Add Add
Drop Drop
Add
Ring Network
Mux Mux
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Drop
Add
Mux Drop
Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
gateway
Add Local
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Drop Add gateway
Drop Add
network
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add Mux Add
Mux Drop
Drop Drop
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Mux
Mux Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add- Drop STM–1
Drop
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Mux Ring Network
Mux
ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ
Add-
Drop
Mux
Mux
Mux
user B Access
user A Mux
Mux Mux
. . .
...
. .
.
STM–1
Add/Drop mux
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Line equipment
Relative complexity
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
STM–1 tributaries
interconnection
ADM ADM
ADM ADM
1 1
J J
K .. K ..
. .
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
N N
Cause:
– fire
– energy
break–down
ADM
Protection fibre
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ADM ADM
ADM
ADM
Reception fibre
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ADM ADM
ADM
ADM ADM
ADM
50%
traffic ADM
DXC
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
50% DXC
traffic
ADM
50%
ADM traffic
50% Traffic division with 1+1 APS
traffic
50%
traffic ADM
DXC
100% 0
traffic
DXC
ADM
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
100% DXC
traffic ADM
100%
traffic
ADM
100% Traffic duplication with 1+1 APS
traffic
100% ADM
traffic
DXC
72 missing STM–1 regular clock pulses : gap for RSOH and MSOH
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
ËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËËË
t 0
VC–4 gapped clock
clock signal
p(0)+ e(0) p(2)+e(2) p(4)+e(4) p(6)+e(6) p(8)+e(8) time with phase variation
Outgoing pointer
+
adjustment gaps or pulses
Time
A1 A2 A3
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
t t
Local nodes
Main nodes
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Local nodes
medium medium
with n1
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
with n1
medium medium
with n2 with n2
refracted ray
Reflection of light Refraction of light
n0 n0
r r
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
core core
cladding cladding
cladding
core
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
cladding
core
multi mode fibre
light graded index profile
S R
Rec. G.652
fiber type Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.652 Rec. G.653
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Rec. G.654
* : parameter value in function of the application, bit rate, fiber type : A–N.x
A: application (I, S, L) N: STM level (1,4,16)
x: fiber/optical source type (1: 1310nm/G.652. 2:1550nm/ G.652. or 1550nm/G.654. 3: 1550nm/ G.653.)
Minimum
attenuation
Maximum
attenuation
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Receiver overload
CONTAINER (C)
CONTAINER + POH
VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)
TRIBUTARY UNITS
TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG)
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP (AUG)
Figure 90 : Terminology
ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXING
NETWORK PROTECTION
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TIMING ASPECTS
PHYSICAL INTERFACES
UNIT PROTECTION
PATH PROTECTION
OPTICAL INTERFACES
RADIO INTERFACES
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ELECTRICAL INTERFACES
ATTENUATION RANGE
DISPERSION
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
EXTINCTION RATIO
RECEIVER PARAMETERS:
1996 ALCATEL BELL N.V. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
RECEIVER OVERLOAD
RECEIVER REFLECTANCE
ACCESS TO FIBRE
PRIVATE NETWORKS
ELECTRICAL INTERFACES:
Optical Amplifier
Optical Amplifier Alcatel 1610 OA
Alcatel 1633 SX
SDH equipments
G.957 Optical interfaces for equipment and systems relating to the SDH
G.958 Digital line systems based on the SDH for use on optical fibre cables
Figure 99 : Recommendations