Ccna 640-802

Basic Networking:
NETWORKING TOPOLOGY
Network topology is defined as the physical interconnection of the various elements

(links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Network Topologies can be physical or logical.
Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and
cable installation. Logical topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a
network as opposed to its design.
Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
• bus
• ring
• star
• tree / hybrid
• mesh
Bus Topology
Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone
to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication
medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to
communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that
all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the
message.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared
to the alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet
cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a
limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus,
performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire
network effectively becomes unusable.
Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise").
A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology.
Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point
called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any
star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN.
(If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.)
Hybrid / Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only
hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of
devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better
than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star
(limited by the number of hub connection points) alone.
Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel
in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown
in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only
indirectly to others.
NETWORKING TERMS:
LAN Local Area Network
 This is used in a small area, an office or organization
 The computers can be connected to each other and other devices, printer or a modem
 The rate at which the data is transmitted is very fast
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
 This is used in a large geographical area, town or city
 Enables high speed connections using fiber optic
WAN Wide Area Network
 This is used in a larger area than MAN, countries or cities
 Enables high speed connections using public networks, telephone lines, satellites, or
leased lines
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
Simplex Mode
Only one device can transmit the data, whereas the other can only receive the data
Half Duplex Mode
Both devices can transmit and receive the data, but not simultaneously
Full Duplex Mode
Both the devices can send and receive the data simultaneously
Difference between Half Duplex and Full Duplex
HALF DUPLEX FULL DUPLEX

One wire is used to connect the networks and Two wires are used to connect the networks
transmit the data and transmit the data
Chances of collision if client and server There are no chances of collision

transmit data simultaneously
It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with CSMA/CD not required hence the data
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol transmission rate is 100 percent
CHAPTER 1:
INTERNETWORKING
Def: When routers connect two or more networks together and use logical addressing (IP
addresses), this is called an Interwork.
Devices:
1) HUB : Hub doesn’t segment a network; they just connect network segments together.
2) SWITCH : Switches only switch frames from one port to another within the switched
network. It segment the each network to create a separate collision domain. But, the fact
is that this network is still one broadcast domain.
Switches break up collision domain.
3) BRIDGE : It is similar to switch.
4) ROUTER: Routers by default break up a broadcast domain. Meaning that the set of all
devices on a network segment that hear all the broadcasts sent on that segment.
ADVANTAGES OF USING ROUTER:
There are two advantages of using routers in the network:
• They don’t forward broadcasts by default
• They can filter the network based on layer 3 (Network Layer) information (eg. IP
Address)
FUNCTIONS OF ROUTERS:
• Packet switching
• Packet filtering
• Internetwork communication
• Path selection
INTERNETWORKING MODELS
When networks first come into being, computers could typically communicate only with
computers from the same manufacturer. For example, companies ran either a complete DECnet
(now Compaq) solution or an IBM solution – not both together.
In the late 1970s, the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was created by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break this barrier.
The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable network devices and software
in the form of protocols so that different vendor networks could work with each other.
The OSI model is the primary architectural model for networks. It describes how data and
network information are communicated from an application on one computer through the
network media to an application on another computer. The OSI reference model breaks this
approach into layers.
ADVANTAGES OF REFERENCE MODEL
• It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components,
thus aiding component development, design and troubleshooting.
• It allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network
components.
• It encourages industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer

of the model.
• It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
• It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does no hamper
development.
THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL
The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather, it’s a set of guidelines that application
developers can use to create and implement application will communicate with each other and
with users. It also provides a framework fir creating and implementing networking standards,
devices, and internetworking scheme.
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex
if there were no services available from the post office.
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was
first introduced in the late 1970s.
Seven layers of the OSI model

PHYSICAL LAYER :
The physical layer is the first or bottommost of OSI reference model. It is responsible for
physical mechanism of network connection.
• The type of interface card used on networking devices.
• The type of cable used for connecting devices
• The connectors used on each end for the cable
• Topology used
In physical layer the data is in the form of bits & bytes i.e (o’s & 1’s)
Physical layer devices are : HUB, cable, connector etc
DATA LINK LAYER:
This layer represented physical of hardware devices. It also defines how a device access the
media that is connected as well defining the frame media type.
It is responsible for taking bits from physical layer and reassembling into original data link frame.
It is also responsible to perform error detection but not correction.
Data link layer devices are: Switch and Bridge
Data link layer is divided into sub layers:
The Logical Link Control (LLC) 802.2 – This layer is the upper sub-layer of the Data Link
Layer. It provides multiplexing and flow control mechanisms that make it possible for several
network protocols (IP, IPX) to coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported over the
same network media.. It attaches header which tells the data link layer what to do with the
packet when the frame is received. It also provide flow control and sequence of bits.
The Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3 – This layer is the lower sub-layer of the Data Link
Layer. It defines how packets are placed on the media. Physical addressing is defined here, as
well as logical topologies. Line discipline, error notification (not correction), ordered delivery of
frames and optional flow control can be used at this sublayer.
NETWORK LAYER:
The Network layer provides quite few actions. First it provide a logical topology of network using
logical topology or layer three addressing. These addresses are used to group machines
address together. Then it performs routing (collection of data from one end to other).
Protocols used in this layer are: IP (windows), IPX (Novell) and AppleTalk (For Macintosh)
Network layer device: Router
TRANSPORT LAYER:
Transport layer is responsible for actual mechanism of collection where it can provide reliable &
unreliable delivery of data. For reliable connection transport layer is responsible for errer
detection & correction.
Protocol used in this layers are:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) & UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
TCP UDP
It is reliable It is unreliable
Acknowledgement is received No acknowledgement
Wired media is used Wireless media us used
SESSION LAYER:
It is responsible for initializing the setup & tear down of the connection. In order to perform this
function the session layer must determine weather data sent to local computer or to remote
network device.
PRESENTATION LAYER:
This layer provides how information is presented to a user. This layer defines how various
forms of text, graphics, video & audio information is represented to a user. Text is represented
in two forms:
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ISO standard)
EBCDI – Extended Binary Code for Decimal Interchange (IBM prop.)
APPLICATION LAYER:
It provides the interface that a person used to interact with the application. The interface can be
a command line or graphical based.
The IOS of cisco routers and switches have a command line interface where as a web browser
uses graphical interface.
Eg: Telnet, HTTP, SMTP, TFTP

SUMMARY OF LAYERS:
HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY TO DECIMAL VALUES:
HEXADECIMAL BINARY DECIMAL

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15
CHAPTER 2 :
INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
TCP/IP and the DoD model
The Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite was created by the
Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure and preserve data integrity, as well as maintain
communications in the event of catastrophic war. So it follows that if designed and implemented
correctly, a TCP/IP network can be a truly dependable and resilient one.
The DoD model is basically a condensed version of the OSI model- its composed of four,
instead of seven layers:
• Process / Application layer
• Host to host layer
• Internet layer
• Network Access Layer
Process / Application Layer :
This layer functions same as upper three layers (Application, Presentation, and Session) of OSI
reference model. The protocols used in this layer are:
FTP – File Transfer Protocol (Need authentication)
TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol (No authentication)
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
DNS – Domain Name Service
BootP – Boot strap Protocol (For booting purpose of diskless machines)
DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (For assigning IP addresses automatically)
HOST-TO-HOST LAYER
This layer function same as Transfer layer of OSI reference model.
Protocols used in this layers are TCP & UDP.
INTERNET LAYER
This layer functions same as Network Layer of the OSI reference model
Protocols used in this layer are:
IP (Internet Protocol)
This protocol is aware of all interconnected networks. It looks each packet address. It creates a
routing table. It decide which packet is to send through best route.
ICMP (Internet Control Messing Protocol)
It is used for messaging purpose
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
It resolves IP address to its associated MAC address
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
It resolves MAC address to its associated IP address
NETWORK ACCESS LAYER
The Network Access layer is different. The DOD did not develop any protocols for the Network
Access layer, because they wanted to create a generic suite of protocols that would function on
any vendor’s system. It was the responsibility of the individual vendors to create a set of
protocols that would allow the Internet suite to work with their hardware. These vendors created
protocols that would function at the Network Access layer. This is a main reason why the
Internet protocol suite is used on so many different systems.
IP ADDRESSING
IP Address is 32 bit binary number, divided into 4 octate, for the identification of the machine in
the network.
IP Terminology
Some important terms related to Internet Protocol
Bit – A bit is one digit, either 1 or 0
Byte – A byte is 8 bits
Octet – An octet is made up of 8 bits
Network address – This is the term used in routing to send packets to a remote network. For Ex:
10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 192.168.10.0
Broadcast address: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to all
nodes on a network is called the broadcast address. Examples include 255.255.255.255, which
is the entire network, all the nodes: 172.16.255.255, which is all subnets and hosts on network
172.16.0.0: and 10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all subnets and hosts on network 10.0.0.0
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
CLASS A NETWORK HOST HOST HOST
CLASS B NETWORK NETWORK HOST HOST
CLASS C NETWORK NETWORK NETWORK HOST

CLASS D MULTICAST
CLASS E RESEARCH
Network Address Range: Class A
The designers of the IP address scheme said that first bit of the first byte in a Class A network
address must always be off, or 0. This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127 in
the first byte, inclusive.
Consider the following network address:
0xxxxxxx
If we turn the other 7 bits all off and then turn them all on, we’ll the Class A range of network
address:
00000000 = 0
01111111 = 127
So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it can’t be less or
more.( Yes, I know 0 and 127 are not valid in a Class A network. I’ll talk about reversed address
in a minute.)
Network Address Range : Class B
In a class B network, the RFCs state that the first bit of the first byte must always be turned on
but the second bit must always be turned off. If you turn the other 6 bits all off then all on, you
will find the range for a Class B network :
10000000 = 128
10111111 = 191
As you san see, a Class B network is defined when the first byte is configured from 128 to
191.
Network Address range : Class C
For Class C network, the RFCs define the first 2 of the first octet as always turned on, but the
third bit can never be on. Following the same process process as the previous classes, convert
from binary to find the range. Here’s the range for a class C network :
1100000 = 192
1101111 = 223
So, if you see an IP address that strats at 192 and goes to 223, you’ll it is a Class C IP
address.
Network Address range : Classes D and E
The address between 224 to 255 are reversed for Class D and E networks. Class D (224-239)
is used for multicast address and Class E (240-255) for scientific purposes, but I,m not going
into these types of addresses in this book ( and you don’t need to know them).
Network Addresses: special Purpose
Some IP addresses are reversed for special purpose s, so network administrators can’t ever
assign these addresses to nodes
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC IP ADDRESS:
Public IP Address: These IP addresses are allocated to the ISP’s , from them you have to
purchase it.
Private IP Address: These addresses can be used on a private network, but they’re not routable
through the internet. That means, you can use these addresses within the organization and
these are free.
PRIVATE IP ADDRESS RANGE
ADDRESS CLASS RANGE

CLASS A 10.0.0.0 TO 10.255.255.255.0
CLASS B 172.16.0.0 TO 172.31.255.255
CLASS C 192.168.0.0 TO 192.168.255.255
CHAPTER 3
SUBNETTING, VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASKS (VLSM’s),

and Troubleshooting TCP/IP
Subnetting: It is the process which allows you to take one larger network and break it into a
bunch of smaller networks.
There are lots of reasons in favor of subnetting, including the following benefits:
• Reduced network traffic
• Optimized network performance
• Simplified management
• Facilitated spanning of large geographical distance
Classful Subnet: It means that all the hosts (all nodes) in the network use the exact same
subnet mask.
Eg: 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0
Default Classful subnet mask:
Class A = 255.0.0.0
Class B = 255.255.0.0
Class C = 255.255.255.0
Classless Subnet: It means that each network segment can use a different subnet mask.
Eg: A single network with the combination of 255.255.255.128, 255.255.255.224,

255.255.255.240
IMPORTANT THINGS FOR SUBNETTING:

Power of 2
21=2, 22=4, 23=8, 24=16, 25=32, 2 6=64, 27=128, 28=256, 29=512, 210=1024,
211=2048, 212=4096, 213=8192, 214=16384
CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)
This is the method that ISP’s (Internet Service Providers) use to allocate a number of addresses
to a company, a home or a customer. They provide addresses in a certain block size, like you
receive a block of addresses from an ISP, which look something like this: 192.168.10.32/28.
This is telling you what your subnet mask is. The slash notation (/) means how many bits are
turned on (1s).
CIDR Values
CIDR Value Subnet Mask

/8 255.0.0.0
/9 255.128.0.0
/10 255.192.0.0
/11 255.224.0.0
/12 255.240.0.0
/13 255.248.0.0
/14 255.252.0.0
/15 255.254.0.0
/16 255.255.0.0
/17 255.255.128.0
/18 255.255.192.0
/19 255.255.224.0
/20 255.255.240.0
/21 255.255.248.0
/22 255.255.252.0
/23 255.255.254.0
/24 255.255.255.0
/25 255.255.255.128
/26 255.255.255.192
/27 255.255.255.224
/28 255.255.255.240
/29 255.255.255.248
/30 255.255.255.252
Values of each bit in an octet:
Binary Decimal CIDR
00000000 0 /24
10000000 128 /25
11000000 192 /26
11100000 224 /27
11110000 240 /28
11111000 248 /29
11111100 252 /30
(We can’t us /31 and /32 because we must have at least 2 host bits for assigning IP addresses
to hosts)
For subnetting do following things:
1)Convert CIDR Value
Ex: /25 = 255.255.255.128
2) Block size= Subtract the last value from 256.
Ex: /25=255.255.255.128, block size = 256-128=128
3) Number of networks= 2n (where n=no.of ON bits)
4)Number of hosts=2n-1 (where n=no.of OFF bits)
Example: If a company has assigned you the IP address
Say: 192.168.10.0/26
Solution:
192.168.10.0 is your network address, which you have to use for the host
/26 is the CIDR value

1) Convert CIDR value into to subnet
/26 = 255.255.255.192
2) Block size
256-192 = 64
3) Number of Network (ON bits)
2
2 =4
4) Number of Host (OFF bits)
6
2 -2 = 62
Our block size is 64, means start from 0 with each gap of 64(blocksize) upto the last no.=192
0 64 128 192 Network Address

1 65 129 193 1st Host
62 126 190 254 Last host
63 127 129 255 Broadcast
So, there are 4 networks: 0,64,128,192
And the IP address assigned to host using the given network address are:
In 0’s network, it will be from
192.168.10.1 to 192.168.10.62
255.255.255.192 255.255.255.192
192.168.10.65 to 192.168.10.126
255.255.255.192 255.255.255.192
192.168.10.129 to 192.168.10.190
255.255.255.192 255.255.255.192
192.168.10.93 to 192.168.10.254
255.255.255.192 255.255.255.192
Check this: there are 4 networks with 64 hosts each.
Example of. /27
1) Covert CIDR value in Sul net
/27= 255.255.255.224
2) Block size
256 - 224 = 32
3) Number of network
23 = 8
4) Number of Host
25 = 8
0 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 Broadcast

1 33 65 97 129 161 193 225 1st Host
30 62 94 126 158 190 222 224 Last Host
31 63 95 127 159 191 223 255 Broadcast
SUBNETTING CLASS B:
This is the same as subnetting with class C, except we start in the third octet here.
Example: If a company has assigned you the IP address
Say: 172.16.0.0/18
Solution:
/18 is the CIDR value
1) Convert CIDR value into to subnet
/18 = 255.255.192.0
2) Block size
256-192 = 64
3) Number of Network (ON bits)
2
2 =4
4) Number of Host (OFF bits)
14
2 -2 = 16382
Our block size is 64, means start from 0 with each gap of 64(blocksize) upto the last no.=192
0.0 64.0 128.0 192.0 Network Address

0.1 64.1 128.1 192.1 1st Host
63.254 127.254 191.254 255.254 Last host
63.255 127.255 191.255 255.255 Broadcast
So, there are 4 networks: 0.0, 64.0, 128.0, and 192.0
And the IP address assigned to host using the given network address are:
172.16.0.1 to 172.16.63.254
255.255.192.0 255.255.192.0
172.16.64.1 to 172.16.127.254
255.255.192.0 255.255.192.0
172.16.128.1 to 172.16.191.254
255.255.192.0 255.255.192.0
172.16.192.1 to 172.16.255.254
255.255.192.0 255.255.192.0
Check this: there are 4 networks with 16382 hosts each.
CLASS A SUBNETTING:
This is the same as subnetting with class C or B, except we start in the Second octet here.
VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK (VLSM)
In VLSM, there is a way to take on network and create many networks using subnet masks of
different lengths on different types of network designs.
Here comes the concept of class full and classless networking.

Using VLSM
Troubleshooting IP addressing
In the above scenario, if your pc’s ip address is 192.168.10.10
For troubleshooting, do the following things:
1)On your PC, start- run- cmd- ping 127.0.0.1
This is the diagnostic, or loopback address to check your IP stack
This is the diagnostic, of your LAN card (NIC-Network Interface Card)
This is the diagnostic, of your gateway (Interface of router, where LAN connected)
This is the diagnostic, of your WAN port (WAN link)
There are some basic commands that you can use to help troubleshoot your network from both
a PC and a Cisco router.
Packet InterNet Groper (ping) Uses the ICMP echo request and replies to test if a node IP
stack is initialized and alive on the network.
Traceroute Displays the list of routers on a path to a network destination by using TTL time-
outs and ICMP error messages. This command will not work from a DOS prompt.
Tracert Same command as traceroute, but it’s a Microsoft Windows command and will
not work on a Cisco router.
Arp –a Displays IP-to-MAC address mappings on a Windows PC.
Show ip arp Same command as arp –a, but displays the ARP table on a Cisco router.
Ipconfig /all Used only from a DOS prompt, shows you the PC network configuration.
CHAPTER 4
Cisco’s Interworking Operating System (IOS) and Security Device

Manager (SDM)
IOS – The Internetworking Operating System, runs Cisco routers as well as switches, and it
allows to configure the devices as well.
About Cisco IOS
The Cisco IOS is a proprietary kernel that provides routing,switching,interworking and

telecommunications features. The first IOS was written by William Yeager in 1986, and it
enabled networked applications.
The IOS software is responsible for:
• Carring network protocols and functions
• Connecting high-speed traffic between devices
• Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use
• Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy
You can access the Cisco IOS through the console port of router, from a modem into the
auxiliary port, or even through Telnet.
CONNECTING TO A CISCO ROUTER
There are different ways to do this, but most often, the first place you would connect to is the
console port.
The console port is usually an RJ-45 connection located at the back of the router.
Serial0/1 Serial0/0 (For Router to router)
FastEthernet 0/0 Auxiliary
(For LAN connection) (to connect with

modem)
Console
(to PC for Configuration of router)
ROUTER COMPONENTS
A Cisco router does not contain disk storage mechanisms such as hard disks. Therefore, the
router requires certain hardware and firmware components for proper functioning. These
components allow the router to enter the boot up process, load its operating system, and
configuration files. A router has six different components.
Processor
Cisco router has a processor (CPU) that executes the IOS commands using the other router
components. Cisco routers use two types of processors such as Motorola 68030 and
Orion/R4600. The Cisco IOS software makes routing decisions and maintains routing tables
using the processor.
ROM
The Read Only Memory (ROM) is a non-volatile memory storage device. It does not lose its
contents when the power supply is turned off. The components of the ROM decide the boot
process of the router.
The ROM consists of the following components:
i) POST
The Power-On-Self-Test component provides a series of diagnostic tests for the

router. These tests start when the router is switched on. The POST is a series of 14
tests that run in the reverse numerical order. The functionality of the router depends
on the result of the tests.
ii) Bootstrap Program
The Bootstrap Program is a ROM Monitor component that allows you to initialize the
processor hardware when the router boots. This component boots the operating
system software after initializing the processor hardware.It loads the IOS image for
the router, with the help of a configuration register.
iii) Mini-IOS
This component is not present in every router. It provides an alternate file for the
router boot up, if the existing image file is unavailable. It provides a minimized
version of the IOS image file consisting of only the IP code.
iv) ROM Monitor
It is a program stored in the ROM which is used to debug user programs. The ROM
Monitor also allows manufacturing, testing and troubleshooting of ROM.
RAM
The function of Random Access Memory in router is similar to memory in computer. It is a

volatile storage medium that loses data when the device is switched off. It consists of the active
IOS image that is loaded when the router boots. It temporarily stores the active configuration
files, routing tables and information in the input and output buffers of the router interface.
Flash
The flash memory in a router is a non-volatile storage medium. It is basically EEPROM. The
flash memory contains IOS images using which router boots.
NVRAM
Non-Volatile RAM is a type of random access memory that stores configuration files for the
router. The startup file and the configuration register for the router are present in the NVRAM.
The configuration register specifies the boot up options for the router.
Configuration Register
It is used to hold the configuration of the router or configuration files of a router. The typical
value of configuration register is hexadecimal 0x2102. Using this value the router loads IOS
from the flash memory and configuration from the NVRAM
CONNECTING ROUTER TO PC:
Connect router to PC using console cable. Console port (RJ-45) on routers Console port and
other side with serial connector to PC’s com port.
On windows, click on
Start -> Program -> Accessories -> Communications -> HyperTerminal

Give name : ex RouterA and select Icon, press OK
Select COM1
Select Restore Defaults, then you will be in routers console.
When you first start the router, it will open the setup, which is the wizard mode to configure.
In the first line, if you choose the option n, then it will open the CLI (Command Line Interface)
CLI – Command Line Interface
Symbol Modes of Router Working
> User EXEC mode Limited to basic monitoring commands
# Privileged mode Provide access to all other router commands
(Config)# Global config mode Commands that affect the entire system
(Config-if)# Interface mode Commands that affect the interfaces
ROUTER CONFIGURATION:
Router> (this is user mode)
Here type enable to go to next (privilege) mode
Router# (this is privilege mode)
Here type config t to go to next (configuration) mode
Router(config)# This is the config or global configuration mode

All the configuration of the routers are done here
Setting Hostname
Setting Banner
Setting Passwords
User mode password
Privilege mode password
There are two types of passwords used here, you can apply any one or both. Password of both
should not be similar.
Here, enable password keep the password plain while enable secret encrypts the password.
IF you want to encrypt enable password, given command
RouterA(config)#service password-encryption
Telnet password
Auxillary password
RouterA (config) # line aux 0
RouterA (config) # password auxillary
RouterA (config) # login
To RESET the password
In 2500 series
Boot the router, press Ctrl+Break to interrupt the router boot sequence. The router then
boots into ROM monitor mode, the rommon> prompt appears.
Type o.
Type 0/r 0x2142
Type I to reload the router
In 2600 series
Boot the router, press Ctrl+Break to interrupt the router boot sequence. The router then
boots into ROM monitor mode, the rommon> prompt appears.
Type confreg 0x2142
Type reset
CONFIGURATION OF INTERFACE WITH IP ADDRESS
On RouterA we are configuring the ip address on FastEthernet0/0 and Serial0/0
While configuration of these interfaces, you might noticed that

In fastethernet0/0 there is only no shut while
In Serial0/0, there are two things mentioned i.e clock rate 64000 and bandwidth 64.
Explanation:
Consider the following three routers
Routers A and Router C will not pass the packets from their other end.
Router B will pass packet for both end. That is, one end to Router A and other end to Router B
This means Router A and Router C are end routers, that terminate the connection and hence,
these are DTE (Data Termination Equipment) in which bandwidth is given, while on Router B
the packets are switched from Router A to Router C and vice-versa. It means that it is clocking
from one to other. This is called DCE (Data Communication Equipment) where clock rate is
given.
To check DTE or DCE
Descriptions:
The description command is helpful to administrator, to keep the track or details about the
particular.
RouterA(config)#int fa0/0
RouterA(config)#description Connection to LAN of network 192.168.10.0
Saving & Viewing Configuration

While you configuring a router, the setting is temporary stored in DRAM (known as running-
config), if router is switched off the setting will be deleted. To store the setting so that when the
next time when the router start, you could get the setting, means it should be stored in NVRAM
(known as startup-config), you have to do the following
RouterA# copy run start
(That will copy the running-config to start-up config)
To View
RouterA# show run
CHAPTER 5
Managing a Cisco Internetwork

Backing up the Cisco IOS
The Cisco router contains the IOS which is inbuild loaded by the vendon in flash.
To view the IOS, the command in routers config mode are:
config# show flash and/or config# show version
There you can see a file name like: c2600-adventerprisek9-mz.124-19.bin
The IOS file is having the extension .bin
You have to take a back up of this file, so in case of any problem you can reload it.
To backup the IOS:
First you need a TFTP server (This is an application which you get free on internet.). After
installing a TFTP on your PC it will work as TFTP server and automatically take the IP address
of your PC. Suppose your PC’s IP address is 192.168.10.10, the same address will be of TFTP
server. Run the TFTP server application.
Go to routers console
Router#copy flash tftp
Source filename []? C2600-adventerprisek9-mz.124-19.bin
Address or name of remote host []? 192.168.10.10
Destination filename [C2600-adventerprisek9-mz.124-19.bin]?[Enter]
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Cisco IOS File system commands:
dir same as the command in windows, this command lets you view files in a directory
copy This command is used to upgrade,restore or back up an IOS.
more same as Unix, this will give you a text file and let you look at it on a card.
Show file This command is used to see specified file or file system, but it is not used in lot.
delete This command is used to delete the stuff.
Erase/format Use these command with care.This command will erase the file system or IOS.
Cd/pwd Same as with Unix or DOS, cd is the command uou use to change directories. Use the
pwd command to print (show) the working directory.
Mkdir/rmdir This command is used to create and delete directories. The mkdir is for creation
and rmdir for deletion.
Using Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP)

CDP is a proprietary protocol designed by cisco to help administrators collect information about
both locally attached and remote devices. By using CDP, you can gather hardware and protocol
information about neighbor devices, which is useful info for troubleshooting and documenting
the network.
Getting CDP timers and Holdtime Information
The show cdp command gives you information about two CDP global parameters that can be
configured on Cisco devices:
CDP timer is how often CDP packets are transmitted out all active interfaces.
CDP holdtime is the amount of time that the device will hold packets received from neighbor
devices.
Gathering Neighbor Information
The show cdp neighbor commond ( sh cdp nei for short ) delivers information about directly
connected devices.
Router#sh cdp neighbors
Output of the show cdp neighbor Commond

Field Description
Device ID The hostname of the device directly connected.
Local Interface The port or interface on which you are receiving the CDP packet.
Holdtime The amount of time the router will hold the information before discarding
It if no more CDP packets are received.
Capability The capability of the neighbor, such as the router, switch, or repeater.
The capability codes are listed at the top of the command output.
Platform The type of Cisco device directly connected. In the previous output, a
Cisco 2500 router and Cisco 1900 switch are attached directly to
The 2509 router. The 2509 only sees the 1900 switch and the 2500
Router connected through its serial 0 interface.
Port ID The neighbor device’s port or interface on which the CDP packets are
Multicast.
Router#sh cdp neighbors detail
This command can be run on both routers and switches, and it displays detailed information
about each device connected to the device you’re running the command on.
Remember that you can see the IP address of only directly connected devices.
Router#sh cdp-entry *
The show cdp entry * command displays the same information as the show cdp neighbors
details command.
There isn’t any difference between the show cdp neighbors details and show cdp
entry * commands. However, the sh cdp entry * command has two options that the show cdp
neighbors details command does not:
Gathering Interface Traffic Information
The show cdp traffic command displays information about interface traffic, including the
number of CDP packets sent and received and the errors with CDP.
Gathering Port and Interface Information

The show cdp interface command gives you the CDP status on router interfaces or switch
ports.
Using Telnet
Telnet, part of the TCP/IP protocol suite, is a virtual terminal protocol that allows you to make
connections to remote devices, gather information, and run programs.
After your routers and switches are configured,you can use the Telnet program to
reconfigure and/or check up on your routers and switches without using a console cable. You
run the program by typing telnet from any command prompt ( DOS or Cisco ). You need to
have VTY passwords set on the routers for his to work.
Telnet ting into Multiple Devices Simultaneously
If you telnet to a router or switch, you can end the connection by typing exit at any time. But
what if you want to keep your connection to a remote device but still come back to your original
router console? To do that, you can press the Ctrl+Shift+6 key combination, release it, and
then press X.
Here’s an example of connecting to multiple devices from my Crop router console:
Checking Telnet Connections
Router#sh sessions
Conn Host Address Byte Idle Conn name
1 10.2.2.2 10.2.2.2 0 0 10.2.2.2
2 10.1.1.2 10.1.1.2 0 0 10.1.1.2
Checking Telnet Users
Router#sh users
Line User Host(s) Idle Location
0 con 0 10.1.1.2 00:00:01
10.2.2.2 00:01:06
Router#sh sessions
Conn Host Address Byte Idle Conn Name
1 10.1.1.2 10.1.1.2 0 0 10.1.1.2
2 10.2.2.2 10.2.2.2 0 0 10.2.2.2
Closing Telnet Sessions
Router#sh session
Conn Host Address Byte Idle Conn Name
2 10.2.2.2 10.2.2.2 0 0 10.2.2.2
Router#disconnect ?
< 0-0 > The number of an active network connection
qdm Disconnect QDM web-based clients
ssh Disconnect an active SSH connection
Router#disconnect 2
Closing connection to 10.2.2.2 [ confirm ] [ enter ]
SDM - Security Device Manager

SDM is a graphical user interface of the router. It is best used for advanced configurations like
security, IPS,QoS, and NAT.
To install a SDM on your router, your router must have an IOS bundled with K9 security.
Ex: we have 2611 XM routers with IOS having k9 security.
Installation of SDM.
1. You need the application software SDMv24 or SDMv25 to be installed on PC & router.
2. Your computer should be installed with latest version of java
3. While installing SDM on router, you need the username and password, for that you have
to do the following configuration before installing SDM on your router.
Configuring router to run SDM
Follow the instructions below to configure a router to run SDM.
Step 1:
a. Connect to your router using Telnet, SSH or via console.

b. Enter the global configuration mode using the command:
Router>enable
Router#conf terminal
Router(config)#
Step 2 :
Enable the router's HTTP/HTTPS server, using the following Cisco IOS commands:
Router(config)# ip http server
Router(config)# ip http secure-server
Router(config)# ip http authentication local
Note:- HTTPS is enabled only for crypto enabled IOS images.
Step 3:
Create a user with privilege level 15.
Router(config)# username <username> privilege 15 password 0 <password>
Note:- Replace <username> and <password> with the username and password that you want to
configure.
Step 4:
Configure SSH and Telnet for local login and privilege level 15:
Router(config)# line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)# privilege level 15
Router(config-line)# login local
Router(config-line)# transport input telnet
Router(config-line)# transport input telnet ssh
Router(config-line)# exit
CHAPTER 6
IP Routing
Before going the know about the IP Routing, one should understand the difference between the
routing protocol and routed protocol.
Routing Protocol: It is used by routers to dynamically find all the networks in the internetwork
and to ensure that all routers have the same routing table. Basically, a routing protocol
determines the path of a packet through an internetwork.
Examples of routing protocols are RIP,RIPv2, EIGRP and OSPF
Routed Protocol: It can be used to send user data (packets) through the established
enterprise. Routed protocols are assigned to an interface and determine the method of packet
delivery.
Examples of routed protocols are IPv4 and IPv6
The term routing is used for taking a packet from one device and sending it through the network
to another device on a different network. Routers don’t really care about hosts- they only care
about networks and the best path to each network.
TYPES OF ROUTING:
Static Routing:
The process of adding routes manually to the routing table is termed as static routing. The
administrator is responsible for updating all changes by hand into all routers. This is feasible in
small networks, but not in large.
Default Routing:
Default route is defined as the route that is not present in the network. Default routing is
possible only with the routers have only one exit path from network (called stub networks). In
default routing you have to assign only a gateway.
Dynamic Routing
In dynamic routing, a protocol on one router communicates with the same protocol running on
neighbor routers. The routers then update each other about all the networks they know about
and place this information into the routing table. If change occurs in the network, the dynamic
routing protocol automatically inform all routers about the event.
We’ll see the practical examples of IP Routing, for that lab you need 3 routers each of them
configured with hostname, IP addresses along with PC’s IP address.
STATIC ROUTING EXAMPLE
In static routing each router has to define the not connected networks with their respective
interfaces.
Format: ip route <not connected n/w><subnetmask><gateway IP or port>
Router A:
RouterA(config)#ip route 192.168.30.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.20.2
Router B:
RouterB(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.20.1

Router C:
RouterC(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.40.1
Or instead of gateway IP you can also assign the port like
RouterC(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 S0/1
DEFAULT ROUTING EXAMPLE
In default routing you can assign 0.0.0.0 as network and 0.0.0.0 as subnet, but only you have to
assign the gateways
Format: ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <gateway IP or port>
Router A:
Router B:
Router C:
Or instead of gateway IP you can also assign the port like
To check the IP route:
Router#show ip route
DYNAMIC ROUTING:
Two types of routing protocols are used in interworks: interior gateway protocols(IGPs) and
exterior gateway protocols (EGPs).
IGPs are used to exchange routing information with routers in the same autonomous
system(AS). An AS is a collection of networks under a common administrative domain, which
basically means that all routers sharing the same routing table information are in the same AS.
EGPs are used to communicate between ASes. An example of an EGP in Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP), which is beyond the scope of our syllabus.
AD Administrative Distances
The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information
received on a router from a neighbor router. An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to
255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route.
Following table shows the default AD
Route Source Default AD

Connected Interface 0
Static route 1
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120
External EIGRP 170
Unknown 255 (this route will never be used)
Routing Protocols
There are three classes of routing protocols
Distance vector: The distance vector protocols find the best path to a remote network by
judging distance. Each time a packet goes through a router, that’s called a hop.
RIP and IGRP are distance vector routing protocols.
Link state In link-state protocols, also called shortest-path-first protocols, the routers
each create three separate tables. One of these tables keeps track of directly attached
neighbors, one determines the topology of the entire internetwork, and one is used as the
routing table. Link state routers know more about the internetwork than any distance vector
routing protocol.
OSPF is the link state routing protocol.

Hybrid Hybrid protocols use aspects of both distance vector and link state.
EIGRP is the hybrid routing protocol.
Routing loops
A routing loop is a common problem with various types of networks, particularly computer
networks. They are formed when an error occurs in the operation of the routing algorithm, and as
a result, in a group of nodes, the path to a particular destination forms a loop.
In the simplest version, a routing loop of size two, node A thinks that the path to some
destination (call it C) is through its neighboring node, node B. At the same time, node B thinks
that the path to C starts at node A.
Thus, whenever traffic for C arrives at either A or B, it will loop endlessly between A and B,
unless some mechanism exists to prevent that behavior.
Network
How a routing loop can form
For example, in the network given below, node A is transmitting data to node C via node B. If
the link between nodes B and C goes down and B has not yet informed node A about the
breakage, node A transmits the data to node B assuming that the link A-B-C is operational and of
lowest cost. Node B knows of the broken link and tries to reach node C via node A, thus sending
the original data back to node A. Furthermore, node A receives the data that it originated back
from node B and consults its routing table. Node A's routing table will say that it can reach node
C via node B (because it still has not been informed of the break) thus sending its data back to
node B creating an infinite loop.
Broken network
Example 2
Routing loops can occur because every router isn’t updated simultaneously, or even close to it.
Here’s an example – let’s say that the interface to Network 5 in figure fails. All routers know
about Network 5 from Router E. Router A, in its tables, has a path to Network 5 through Router
B.
When Network 5 fails, Router E tells Router C. This causes Router C to stop routing to Net-
work 5 through Router E. But routers A, B and D don’t know about Network 5 yet, so they keep
sending out update information. Router c will eventually send out its update and cause B to stop
routing to Network 5, but routers A and D are still not updated. To them, it appears that Network
5 is still available through Router B with a metric of 3.
Maximum Hop Count
The routing loop problem described is called counting to infinity, and it’s caused by gossip
( broadcasts ) and wrong information being communicated and propagated throughout the
internetwork. Without some form of intervention, the hop count increases indefinitely each time
a packet passes through a router.
Split Horizon
Another solution to the routing loop problem is called split horizon. This reduces incorrect
routing information and routing overhead in a distance-vector network by enforcing the rule that
routing information cannot be sent back in the direction from which it was received.
Route Poisoning
Another way to avoid problems caused by inconsistent updated stop network loops is route
poisoning. For example, when Network 5 goes down, Router E initiates route poisoning by
advertising Network 5 as 16, or unreachable ( sometimes reffered to as infinite.)
Holddowns
A holddown prevents regular update messages from reinstating a route that is going up
and down ( called flapping ). Typically, this happens on a serial link that’s losing connectivity
and then coming back up. If there wasn’t way to stabilize this, the network would converge and
that one flapping interface could bring the entire network down.
Distance Vector Routing Protocol
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
Routing Information Protocol is a true distance-vector routing protocol. RIP sends the complete
routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP only uses hop count to determine
the best way to a remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop count of 15 by default,
meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small networks, but it’s inefficient on
large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with a large number of routers installed.
RIP Timers
Route update timer 30 seconds
Route invalid timer 180 seconds
Route flush timer 240 seconds

Configuring RIP routing
While configuring Dynamic routing, you have to consider only connected networks.
Router A
RouterA(config)#router rip
RouterA(config)#network 192.168.10.0
Router B
RouterB(config)#router rip
RouterB(config)#network 192.168.20.0
Router C
RouterC(config)#router rip
RouterC(config)#network 192.168.40.0
Related commands of RIP
To check the rip configuration:
Router#show ip route
To debug
Router#debug ip rip
To undebug
Router#undebug all
RIP has two versions RIPv1 and RIPv2, by default version 1 is used, for using version 2 the
configuration is
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#version 2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RIPv1 AND RIPv2
RIP v1 RIP v2
Distance vector Distance Vector
Maximum hop count of 15 Maximum hop count of 15
Classful Classless
Broadcast based Use multicast 224.0.0.9
No support for VLSM Supports VLSM networks
No authentication Allows for MD5 authentication
IGRP – Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

It is a Cisco proprietary distance-vector routing protocol. This means that to use IGRP in your
network, all your routers must be Cisco routers. Cisco created this routing protocol to overcome
the problems associated with RIP.
IGRP has maximum hop count of 255 with the default being 100.
IGRP uses different metric than RIP. IGRP uses bandwidth and delay of the line by default as a
metric for determining the best route to an internetwork.
IGRP RIP
Can be used in large internetwork Works best in smaller networks
Uses an autonomous system number for Does not use autonomous system number
activation
Gives a full route table update every 90 sec Gives a full route table update every 30 sec
Has an administrative distance of 100 Has an administrative distance of 120
Uses bandwidth and delay of the line as Uses only hop count to determine the best to a
metric, with maximum hop count of 255 remote network, with 15 hops being maximum
Consider the above fig. The configuration is shown below
Router A
RouterA(config)#router igrp 10
Router B
RouterB(config)# router igrp 10
Router C
RouterC(config)# router igrp 10
*here router igrp 10 is used. 10 is an autonomous system number, which denotes the logical
group no. It may be from 1 to 65565.
Verifying configuration
Router# show ip route
Router# show ip protocols
Router# debug ip rip
Troubleshooting with show ip protocols command
Router# show ip protocols

Router# show ip interface brief
CHAPTER 7
Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)

And
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Enhanced IGRP is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that gives us a real edge
over another Cisco proprietary protocol, Interior Gateway Routing Protocol.
Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the concept of an autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous
routers that run the same routing protocol and share routing information. But the difference is
that this includes the subnet mask in its route updates, which is not in IGRP. By including
subnet mask in route updates, this allows us to use Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSMs)
EIGRP is referred as a hybrid protocol because it has characteristics of both distance-vector

and link-state protocols.
Following are the features of EIGRP:
• Support for IPv4 and IPv6
• Considered classless (same as RIPv2 and OSPF)
• Support for summaries and discontiguous networks
• Efficient neighbor discovery
• Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP)
• Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
One of the most interesting features of EIGRP is that it provides routing support for multiple
Network layer protocols: IP,IPX,AppleTalk, and now IPv6. It supports different Network layer
protocols through the use of protocol-dependent modules (PDMs). Each EIGRP PDM will
maintain a separate series of tables containing the routing information that applies to a specific
protocol. This means that there will be IPv4/EIGRP or IPv6/EIGRP
Neighbor Discovery
There are three conditions that must be met for neighborship establishment:
• Hello or ACK received
• AS numbers match
• Identical metrics ( K values )
Link- state protocols tend to use Hello massages to establish neighborship (also called
adjacencies) because they normally do not send out periodic route updates and there has to be
some mechanism to help neighbors realize when a new peer has moved in or an old one has
left or gone down. To maintain the neighborship relationship, EIGRP routers must also continue
receiving Hellos from their neighbors.
EIGRP routers that belong to different autonomous systems (ASes) don’t automatically
share routing information and they don’t become neighbors. This behavior can be a real benefit
when used in larger networks to reduce the amount of route information propagated through a
specific AS. The only catch is that you might have to take care of redistribution between the
ASes manually.
When EIGRP routers receive their neighbor’s updates, they store them in a local topology
table. This table contains all known routes from all known neighbors and servers as the raw
material from which the best routes are selected and placed into the routing table.
Feasible distance
This is the best metric along all parts to a remote network, including the metric to the
neighbor that is advertising that remote network. This is the route that you will find in the routing
table because it is considered the best path. The metric of a feasible distance is the metric
reported by the neighbor (called reported or advertised distance) plus the metric to the neighbor
reporting the route.
Reported / advertised distance
This is the metric o a remote network, as reported by a neighbor. It is also routing table
metric of the neighbor and is the same as the second number in parentheses as displayed in
the topology table, the first number being the feasible distance.
Neighbor table
Each router keeps state information about adjacent neighbors. When a newly
discovered neighbor is learned, the address an interface of the neighbor are recorded, and this
information is held in the neighbor table stored in RAM. There is one neighbor table for each
protocol-dependent module. Sequence numbers are used to match acknowledgments with
update packets. The last sequence numbers received from the neighbor is recorded so that out-
of-order packets can be detected.
Topology table
The topology table is populated by the protocol-dependent modules and by neighboring

routers, holding each destination address and a list of neighbors that have advertised the
destination. For each neighbor, the advertised metric, which comes only from the neighbor’s
table, is recorded. If the neighbor is advertising this destination, it must be using the route to
forward packets.
Feasible successor
A feasible successor is a path whose reported distance is less than the feasible distance,
and it is considered a backup route. EIGRP will keep up to six feasible and placed in the routing
table. The show ip eigrp topology command will display all the EIGRP feasible successor routes
known to a router.
Successor
A successor route is the best route to a remote network. A successor route is used by
EIGRP to forward traffic to a destination and is stored in the routing table. It is backed up by a
feasible successor route that is stored in the topology table- if one is available.
Reliable Transport Protocol ( RTP )
EIGRP uses a proprietary protocol called Reliable Transport ( RTP ) to manage the
communication of message between EIGRP- speaking routers. And as the name suggests,
reliability is a key concern of this protocol. Cisco has designed a mechanism that leverages
multicasts and unicasts to deliver updates quickly and to track the receipt of the data.
When EIGRP sends multicast traffic, it uses the Class D address 224.0.0.10. each EIGRP
router is aware of who its neighbors are, and for each multicast it sends out, it maintains a list of
the neighbors who have replied. If EIGRP doesn’t get a reply a neighbor, it will switch to using
unicasts to resend the same data. People often refer to this process as reliable multicast.
Diffusing Update Algorithm ( DUAL )
EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm ( DUAL ) for selecting and maintaining the best path to
each remote network. This algorithm allows for the following:
• Backup route determination if one is available
• Support of VLSMs
• Dynamic route recoveries
• Queries for an alternate route if no route can be found
DUAL provides EIGRP with possibly the fastest route convergence time among all
protocols. The key to EIGRP’s speedy convergence is twofold. First, EIGRP routers maintain a
copy of all o their neighbor’s routes, which they use to calculate their own cost to each remote
network. If the best path goes down, it may be as simple as examining the contents of the
topology table to select the best replacement route. Second, if there isn’t a good alternative in
the local topology table, EIGRP routers very quickly ask their neighbors for help finding one.
EIGRP Metrics
Unlike many other protocols that use a single factor to compare routers and select the best
possible path, EIGRP can use a combination of four:
• Bandwidth
• Delay
• Load
• Reliability
Router A
RouterA(config)#router eigrp 10
Router B
RouterB(config)# router eigrp 10
Router C
RouterC(config)# router eigrp 10
Setting Passive-Interface
Suppose, if you need to stop EIGRP from working on a specific interface, such as a BRI
interface or a serial connection to the Internet. To do that, you would flag the interface as
passive using the passive-interface command.
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
Router(config)#passive-interface serial 0/0
Doing this will prohibit the interface from sending or receiving Hello packets and, as a result,
stop it from forming adjacencies. This means that it won’t send or receive route information on
this interface.
[The impact of the passive-interface command depends upon the routing protocol under which
the command is issued. For example, on an interface running RIP, the passive-interface
command will prohibit the sending of route updates but allow their receipt. Thus, a RIP router
with a passive interface will still learn about the networks advertised by other routers. This is
different from EIGRP, where a passive-interface will neither send nor receive updates]
Verifying EIGRP
Router# show ip route (shows the entire routing table)
Router# show ip route eigrp (shows only EIGRP entries in the routing table)
Router# show ip eigrp neighbors (shows all EIGRP neighbors)
Router# show ip eigrp topology (shows entries in the EIGRP topology table)
Router# debug eigrp packet (shows Hello packets sent/received between adjacent routers)
Router# debug ip eigrp notification (shows EIGRP changes and updates as they occur on n/w)
OSPF – Open Shortest Path First
The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol, defined in RFC 2328 , is an Interior Gateway
Protocol used to distribute routing information within a single Autonomous System. This paper
examines how OSPF works and how it can be used to design and build large and complicated
networks.
Background Information
OSPF protocol was developed due to a need in the internet community to introduce a high
functionality non-proprietary Internal Gateway Protocol (IGP) for the TCP/IP protocol family. The
discussion of the creation of a common interoperable IGP for the Internet started in 1988 and
did not get formalized until 1991. At that time the OSPF Working Group requested that OSPF be
considered for advancement to Draft Internet Standard.
The OSPF protocol is based on link-state technology, which is a departure from the Bellman-
Ford vector based algorithms used in traditional Internet routing protocols such as RIP. OSPF
has introduced new concepts such as authentication of routing updates, Variable Length Subnet
Masks (VLSM), route summarization, and so forth.
These chapters discuss the OSPF terminology, algorithm and the pros and cons of the protocol
in designing the large and complicated networks of today.
OSPF versus RIP
The rapid growth and expansion of today's networks has pushed RIP to its limits. RIP has
certain limitations that can cause problems in large networks:
• RIP has a limit of 15 hops. A RIP network that spans more than 15 hops (15 routers) is
considered unreachable.
• RIP cannot handle Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM). Given the shortage of IP
addresses and the flexibility VLSM gives in the efficient assignment of IP addresses, this
is considered a major flaw.
• Periodic broadcasts of the full routing table consume a large amount of bandwidth. This
is a major problem with large networks especially on slow links and WAN clouds.
• RIP converges slower than OSPF. In large networks convergence gets to be in the order
of minutes. RIP routers go through a period of a hold-down and garbage collection and
slowly time-out information that has not been received recently. This is inappropriate in
large environments and could cause routing inconsistencies.
• RIP has no concept of network delays and link costs. Routing decisions are based on
hop counts. The path with the lowest hop count to the destination is always preferred
even if the longer path has a better aggregate link bandwidth and less delays.
• RIP networks are flat networks. There is no concept of areas or boundaries. With the
introduction of classless routing and the intelligent use of aggregation and
summarization, RIP networks seem to have fallen behind.
Some enhancements were introduced in a new version of RIP called RIP2. RIP2 addresses the
issues of VLSM, authentication, and multicast routing updates. RIP2 is not a big improvement
over RIP (now called RIP 1) because it still has the limitations of hop counts and slow
convergence which are essential in today’s large networks.
OSPF, on the other hand, addresses most of the issues previously presented:
• With OSPF, there is no limitation on the hop count.

• The intelligent use of VLSM is very useful in IP address allocation.
• OSPF uses IP multicast to send link-state updates. This ensures less processing on
routers that are not listening to OSPF packets. Also, updates are only sent in case
routing changes occur instead of periodically. This ensures a better use of bandwidth.
• OSPF has better convergence than RIP. This is because routing changes are
propagated instantaneously and not periodically.
• OSPF allows for better load balancing.
• OSPF allows for a logical definition of networks where routers can be divided into areas.
This limits the explosion of link state updates over the whole network. This also provides
a mechanism for aggregating routes and cutting down on the unnecessary propagation
of subnet information.
• OSPF allows for routing authentication by using different methods of password
authentication.
• OSPF allows for the transfer and tagging of external routes injected into an Autonomous
System. This keeps track of external routes injected by exterior protocols such as BGP.
This of course leads to more complexity in the configuration and troubleshooting of OSPF
networks. Administrators that are used to the simplicity of RIP are challenged with the amount of
new information they have to learn in order to keep up with OSPF networks. Also, this
introduces more overhead in memory allocation and CPU utilization. Some of the routers
running RIP might have to be upgraded in order to handle the overhead caused by OSPF.
What Do We Mean by Link-States?
OSPF is a link-state protocol. We could think of a link as being an interface on the router. The
state of the link is a description of that interface and of its relationship to its neighboring routers.
A description of the interface would include, for example, the IP address of the interface, the
mask, the type of network it is connected to, the routers connected to that network and so on.
The collection of all these link-states would form a link-state database.
Shortest Path First Algorithm
OSPF uses a shorted path first algorithm in order to build and calculate the shortest path to all
known destinations. The shortest path is calculated with the use of the Dijkstra algorithm. The
algorithm by itself is quite complicated. This is a very high level, simplified way of looking at the
various steps of the algorithm:
1. Upon initialization or due to any change in routing information, a router generates a link-
state advertisement. This advertisement represents the collection of all link-states on
that router.
2. All routers exchange link-states by means of flooding. Each router that receives a link-
state update should store a copy in its link-state database and then propagate the
update to other routers.
3. After the database of each router is completed, the router calculates a Shortest Path
Tree to all destinations. The router uses the Dijkstra algorithm in order to calculate the
shortest path tree. The destinations, the associated cost and the next hop to reach those
destinations form the IP routing table.
4. In case no changes in the OSPF network occur, such as cost of a link or a network being
added or deleted, OSPF should be very quiet. Any changes that occur are
communicated through link-state packets, and the Dijkstra algorithm is recalculated in
order to find the shortest path.
The algorithm places each router at the root of a tree and calculates the shortest path to each
destination based on the cumulative cost required to reach that destination. Each router will
have its own view of the topology even though all the routers will build a shortest path tree using
the same link-state database. The following sections indicate what is involved in building a
shortest path tree.
OSPF Cost
The cost (also called metric) of an interface in OSPF is an indication of the overhead required to
send packets across a certain interface. The cost of an interface is inversely proportional to the
bandwidth of that interface. A higher bandwidth indicates a lower cost. There is more overhead
(higher cost) and time delays involved in crossing a 56k serial line than crossing a 10M Ethernet
line. The formula used to calculate the cost is:
• cost= 10000 0000/band with in bps
For example, it will cost 10 EXP8/10 EXP7 = 10 to cross a 10M Ethernet line and will cost 10
EXP8/1544000 = 64 to cross a T1 line.
By default, the cost of an interface is calculated based on the bandwidth; you can force the cost
of an interface with the ip ospf cost<value> interface sub configuration mode command.
Shortest Path Tree
Assume we have the following network diagram with the indicated interface costs. In order to
build the shortest path tree for RTA, we would have to make RTA the root of the tree and
calculate the smallest cost for each destination.
The above is the view of the network as seen from RTA. Note the direction of the arrows in
calculating the cost. For example, the cost of RTB's interface to network 128.213.0.0 is not
relevant when calculating the cost to 192.213.11.0. RTA can reach 192.213.11.0 via RTB with a
cost of 15 (10+5). RTA can also reach 222.211.10.0 via RTC with a cost of 20 (10+10) or via
RTB with a cost of 20 (10+5+5). In case equal cost paths exist to the same destination, Cisco's
implementation of OSPF will keep track of up to six next hops to the same destination.
After the router builds the shortest path tree, it will start building the routing table accordingly.
Directly connected networks will be reached via a metric (cost) of 0 and other networks will be
reached according to the cost calculated in the tree.
Areas and Border Routers
As previously mentioned, OSPF uses flooding to exchange link-state updates between routers.
Any change in routing information is flooded to all routers in the network. Areas are introduced
to put a boundary on the explosion of link-state updates. Flooding and calculation of the Dijkstra
algorithm on a router is limited to changes within an area. All routers within an area have the
exact link-state database. Routers that belong to multiple areas, and connect these areas to the
backbone area are called area border routers (ABR). ABRs must therefore maintain information
describing the backbone areas and other attached areas.
An area is interface specific. A router that has all of its interfaces within the same area is called
an internal router (IR). A router that has interfaces in multiple areas is called an area border
router (ABR). Routers that act as gateways (redistribution)between OSPF and other routing
protocols (IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS, RIP, BGP, Static) or other instances of the OSPF routing
process are called autonomous system boundary router (ASBR). Any router can be an ABR or
an ASBR.
Configuration on Router A
Configuration on Router B
Configuration on Router C
In the above configuration, you can see, first router ospf 10 is assigned. 10 is the Process ID
number. It can be the same on every router on the network, or it can be different-doesn’t matter.
It’s locally significant and just enables the OSPF routing on the router.
Another thing you can see is, instead of subnet mask a wildcard mask 0.0.0.255 is used here.
Wildcard mask can be obtained by subtracting the subnet from 255.255.255.255.
A 0 octet in the wildcard mask indicates that the corresponding octet in the network must match
exactly. On the other hand, a 255 indicates that you don’t care what the corresponding cotet is
in the network number. A network and wildcard mask combination of 1.1.1.1 0.0.0.0 would
match 1.1.1.1 only and nothing else. This is really useful if you want to activate OSPF on a
specific interface in a very clear and simple way. If you insist on matching a range of networks,
the network and wildcard mask combination of 1.1.0.0 0.0.255.255 would match anything in the
range 1.1.0.0 – 1.1.255.255.
Last thing, you can see area 0 with each network. As you must know OSPF deals with the
separate areas, and the CCNA concerns with single area only.
OSPF Terminology
To understand the OSPF concepts in a better way, it is very important to know the terms used in
OSPF. The following list display the descriptions of the various terms used.
 Link - A router that is connected to the network and uses OSPF as its routing protocol is
defined as a link. Every link has a state as well as IP address.
 Router ID – The IP address that identifies the router is called the Router ID (RID).
 Neighbors – When two or more routers are connected physically with the help of an
interface such as a serial or fast Ethernet are termed as neighbors.
 Adjacency – Some routers use OSPF as the routing protocol and are capable of
sharing the route updates. This relationship is termed as adjacency.
 Hello Protocol – The protocols that are sent by the routers to discover and preserves
the relationship with the neighbors are called as hello protocols. The protocols along with
the Link State Advertisements (LSAs) update the topological database.
 Neighbor ship database – The list of OSPF routers for which the hello packets are
acknowledge are stored in the neighbor ship database. In addition, it even stores the
RID and state of the links.
 Designated Router (DR) – Designated routers are decided by the Hello protocols when
two or more OSPF routers attempt to access the same multi-access networks. These
networks have more than one recipient. DR reduces the number of adjacencies in the
multi-access network. This helps to reduce the routing protocol traffic and the topological
database size.
 Backup Designated router (BDR) – The router used as an alternative for the DR is
termed as a backup designated router.
 Broadcast (multi-access) – The networks that permit various devices to access the
same network and possess the ability to transmit the packets to multiple recipients are
termed as broadcast (multi-access).
 Non-Broadcast multi-access (NBMA) – The networks that allow multiple devices to

access the same network, but cannot broadcast the packets to multiple nodes are called
as non-broadcast multi- access.
 Point-to-point – When two routers are connected directly using a serial cable and the
packets are transmitted using a single communication path, this type of network is
termed as point-to-point connection. This eliminates the need of DRs and BDRs.
 Point-to-multipoint – when a router is connected to multiple routers using a single
interface, the connection is termed as point-to-multipoint connection. This again
eliminates the need of Drs and BDRs.
OSPF and Loopback Interfaces
Loopback interfaces can be defined as the virtual software interfaces that are always active.
These are not directly connected to the routers. Configuring a loopback interface with the OSPF
configuration ensures that there is always an interface, which is active. If the loopback interface
is not configured with OSPF, the highest IP address on the router becomes the RID. The router
RID is used to broadcast the routers to the networks connected to the router and to construct
Designated Routes (DR) and Backup Designated Routes (BDR).
Chapter 8 – Layer 2 Switching and Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
Switching Services: Layer 2 switches and bridges are faster than routers because they
don’t take up time looking at the Network layer information. Instead, they look at the frame’s
hardware addresses before deciding to either forward, flood or drop the frame.
Layer 2 switching provides the following:
 Hardware-based bridging (ASIC)
 Wire speed
 Low latency
 Low cost
Bridging Vs. LAN Switching
 Bridges are software based, while switches are hardware based because they use ASIC
chips to help make filtering decisions.
 A switch can be viewed as a multiport bridge.
 Switches have a higher number of ports than most bridges.
Three Switch Functions at Layer 2
 Address learning Layer 2 switches and bridges remember the source hardware
address of each frame received on an interface, and they enter this information into a
MAC database called a forward/filter table.
 Forward/filter decisions when a frame is received on an interface, the switch looks at
the destination hardware address and finds the exit interface in the MAC database. The
frame is only forwarded out the specified destination port.
 Loop avoidance If multiple connections between switches are created for redundancy
purposes, network loops can occur, Spanning Tree Protocol (STP ) is used to stop
network loops while still permitting redundancy.
Switch#show mac address-table
Vlan Mac Address Type Ports

1 0005.dccb.d74b DYNAMIC Fa0/1
1 000a.f467.9e80 DYNAMIC Fa0/3
1 000a.f467.9e8b DYNAMIC Fa0/4
1 000a.f467.9e8c DYNAMIC Fa0/3
1 0010.7b7f.c2b0 DYNAMIC Fa0/3
1 0030.80dc.460b DYNAMIC Fa0/3
1 0030.9492.a5dd DYNAMIC Fa0/1
1 00d0.58ad.05f4 DYNAMIC Fa0/1
Port Security
How do you stop someone from simply plugging a host into one of your switch ports or worse,
adding a hub, switch, or access point into the Ethernet jack in their office? By default, MAC
addresses will just dynamically appear in your MAC forward/filter database. You can stop them
in their tracks by using port security.
Switch#config t
Switch (config) #int f0/1
Switch (config-if) #switchpport port-security?
aging Port-security aging commands
Mac-address Secure Mac address
maximum Max secure addresses
violation Security violation mode
Switch#config t
Switch (config) #int f0/1
Switch( config-if)#switchport port-security maximum 1
Switch ( config-if )#switchport port-security violation shutdown
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

The main task of STP is to stop the network loop, which occurs for an-indefinite period
on the layer 2 network. To prevent this loop, the STP monitors all the links using the
spanning Tree Algorithm (STA) and blocks ports from forwarding frames. switches
operate in two modes, forwarding and blocking modes. Forwarding mode means that a
port can send and receive frames whereas, blocking mode means that it cannot forward
or receive frames. With the help of STP, frames do not loop which makes the network
path usable.
The user Lloyd sends a message to the user Steve using MAC address. However,
Steve’s machine is in off state due to which the switches are not aware of Steve’s MAC
address. According to the topology, the message passes from switch 2 to switch 1, from
switch 1 to switch 3 and so on. This creates an infinite loop and the message never
reaches Steve. Therefore, to avoid such loops, a port on a particular switch is put to
blocking mode. This port is determined by STP.
Spanning-Tree Port States

The ports on a bridge or switch running STP can move through five different states:
 Blocking – The port that is in the blocked mode will not forward frames. This port only
listens to BPDUs. This port prevents the use of looped path.
 Listening – The port listens to BPDUs and confirms that there are no loops in the
network. This state is a temporary state between blocking and forwarding.
 Learning – The switch port listens to BPDUs and learns the paths in the network. In this
state, the port only updates the MAC address table. However, the port does not forward
the frame.
 Forwarding - The port sends and receives all the frames on the port.
 Disabled – A port in the disabled state is almost not operational and does not forwards
any frames. In addition, it is not active even in the spanning tree operation.
Catalyst 1900 Switches

The 1900 switch supports an optional external redundant power supply (RPS) and has
the capacity to support 1024 MAC address
Catalyst 2900 Switches
The 2900 switch provide Ethernet channel capabilities. The switches come with four and
eight megabytes of memory size. The 2900 series have the capacity to support 8124 MAC
address.
Chapter 9
VIRTUAL LAN
Introduction:
A Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) is a collection of networking devices existing in the same
broadcast domain. In a broadcast domain, networking devices can share information between
each other without the use of a routing device.
In a network, VLANs should be preferred than any other network technology because of the
following advantages.
 Broadcast Control – Using VLANS, you can create individual networks and direct the
messages or data to the host connected to the specified VLAN. The broadcasts of the
different VLANS are filtered by all the ports on a switch that belong to the other VLANS.
The broadcast is then transferred to the directed host. VLANS are unlike the networks
using hubs, in which the messages are broadcasted to every connected device. This
help in reducing the bandwidth consumption in the network.
 Security – Creating VLANs allow you to create and regulate independent networks or
broadcast groups. Therefore, VLANs allow you to efficiency control the switch ports,
which prevent unauthorized access of the network by the use of a switch port. In
addition, the switches connected to the ports can be configured to detect any
unauthorized access as VLANs help you to set up the require devices on the network.
 Flexibility and Scalability – VLAN are considered as flexible because it allows you to
construct groups or networks connected to a switch or a group of switches. In addition,
you hold the right of modifying the group, by adding or deleting the users. This is useful
in large networks of organizations where you can assign user rights on the basis of
group to which the user belongs. Moreover, this is irrespective of the physical location of
the user. In addition, it allows you to divide large VLANs into smaller ones and connect
the divided VLANS with the router. Moreover, it allows you to restrict or give access of
the services in a group.
VLAN Membership
VLAN membership can be defined as the association of the devices in a VLAN and how the
devices are configured in the VLAN. The membership is of two types, static VLANS and
dynamic VLANs.
 Static VLANs – The task of assigning switch ports by an administrator to a VLANs

defined as static VLANs. In static VLANs, the network is controlled by the administrator.
In addition, the administrator decides to which broadcast domain the hosts
( users/devices) shall be connected and also to which VLAN these hosts shall belong.
The physical location of the devices is not considered when a VLAN is configured.
However, It is essential that the IP address of the host should belong to the network
address of its respective VLAN In addition, before connecting the host to the switch, the
membership of the VLAN with the switch port should be checked.
 Dynamic VLANs – in dynamic VLANs, the configured switches are assigned to VLANs
automatically. This assignment task is based on the number of hosts connected to the
switch. In this type, the network administrator needs to store the devices’ MAC
addresses in a database. This can be done using the VLAN Management Policy Server
(VMPS) that maps MAC addresses to VLANs. If a new host is connected to an unused
switch port, the VLAN management database checks the MAC address of the host and
configures the switch according to the VLAN host.
VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP )
The basic goals of VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) are to manage all configured VLANs across a
switched internetwork and to maintain consistency throughout that network VTP allows you to
add, delete, and rename VLANs – information that is then propagated to all other switches in
the VTP domain.
Here’s a list of some of the cool features VTP has to offer:
 Consistent VLAN configuration across all switches in the network
 VLAN trunking over mixed networks, such as Ethernet to ATM LANE or even FDDI
 Accurate tracking and monitoring of VLANs
 Dynamic reporting of added VLANs to all switches in the VTP domain
 Plug and play VLAN adding
VTP Modes of Operation
Server This is the default mode for all Catalyst switches. You need at least one server in your
VTP domain to propagate VLAN information throughout that domain. Also important: the switch
must be in server mode to be able to create, add, and delete VLANs in a VTP domain. VTP
information has to be changed in server mode, and any change made to a switch in server
mode will be advertised to the entire VTP domain. In VTP server mode, VLAN configurations
are saved in NVRAM.
Client In client mode, switches receive information from VTP servers, but they also send and
receive updates, so in this way, they behave like VTP servers. The difference is that they can’t
create, change, or delete VLANs.
Transparent Switches in transparent mode don’t participate in the VTP domain or share its
VLAN database, but they’II still forward VTP advertisements through any configured trunk links.
They can create, modify, and delete VLANs because they keep their own database-one they
keep secret from the other switches. Despite being kept in NVRAM, the VLAN database in
transparent mode is to allow remote switches to receive the VLAN database from a VTP server-
configured switch through a switch that is not participating in the same VLAN assignments.
VTP Pruning
VTP gives you a way to preserve bandwidth by configuring it to reduce the amount of
broadcasts, multicasts, and unicast packets. This called pruning. VTP pruning enabled switches
sends broadcasts only to trunk links that actually must have the information. When you enable
pruning on a VTP server, you enable it for the entire domain. By defaults, VLANs 2 through
1001 are pruning eligible, but VLAN 1 can prune because it’s an administrative VLAN. VTP
pruning is supported with both VTP version 1 and Version 2.
CONFIGURATION OF VLAN ON 1900 SWITCH
DEFINING VLAN
ASSIGNING VLAN ON PORTS
CONFIGURATION OF VLAN ON 2900 SWITCH

ASSIGNING VLAN ON PORTS
TO VERIFY
Switch# show vlan

VLAN TRUNKING
A network can have multiple VLAN switches present on it. When a particular VLAN switch
sends a broadcast message to another switch on the network, the receiving switch needs to
identify the source of the message. This is achieved by implementing a process known as VLAN
trucking.
VLAN trunking adds a tag to each data frame that is transferred from the switch. This tag tells
the receiving switch, the address of the source VLAN. VLANs help you to support members
present on more than one switch. In Fig. Switch1 and Switch 2 have configured three VLANs.
Finance, Marketing and Business Development. If Switch 1 receives a broadcast from a device
in VLAN Finance, it needs to broadcast it to Switch 2. Switch 1 adds another header to the
original frame with a new header number on it before sending the frame. After Switch 2 receives
the frame, it identifies that the frame was from a device on VLAN Finance. Switch Y will now
only forward the broadcast to its own interfaces in VLAN Finance.
VLAN tagging provides a method of transferring VLAN information between VLAN groups.
VLAN tagging attaches a tag of packet headers. The VLAN tag indicates to which the VLAN
packet belongs. VLAN tags are attached to the packet by either the end destination or network
device. VLAN tags also contain VLAN network priority information.
Cisco supports two tag protocols, Inter-Switch Link (ISL) and IEEE 802.1Q. These protocols
enable tagging of VLAN data frames.
Introduction:
A wireless LAN (WLAN) connects mobile users to a LAN with a wireless connection. It uses
high-speed radio waves to initiate communication between the connected devices. WLANs
introduce vulnerabilities that enable unauthorized access to the data sent over the wireless
network. Hence, WLANs must be configured with security features.
WLAN Concept
The wireless laptops (Laptop 1 and Laptop 2 ) are connected through a WLAN device referred
to as Access Point (AP). The AP sends and receives frames from the laptops using wireless
communication.
Comparing WLANs with Ethernet LANs
WLANs Ethernet LANs

The IEEE standard for WLAN is IEEE 802.11. The IEEE standard for Ethernet LAN is IEEE
802.3.
WLANs use high energy radio waves to Ethernet LANs use electric signals to transmit
transmit data data.
WLAN uses half-duplex (HDX) mechanism for Ethernet supports Full-duplex (FDX)
communication mechanism for communication when a switch
connects through a single device rather than
hub
WLANs suffer more interference since the LANS suffer less interference since the electric
matter (Walls, metals and other obstructions) signals travel through cables.
in the space come in the way of radio waves
that travel through space.
WLANS use CSMA/CA to avoid collisions in LANs use CSMA/CD to detect collisions in the
the network. network.
17.1.2 Wireless LAN Standards
IEEE has defined four major WLAN standards, namely 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g.
Four organizations that have an impact on the WLAN standards used today are ITU-R, IEEE,
Wi-Fi Alliance and Federal Communication Commission (FCC).
Features 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g

Ratification year 1999 1999 1999
Maximum Speed 11 Mbps 11Mbps
(Using DSSS)
Maximum speed 54Mbps - 54Mbps
(Using OFDM)
Frequency band 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz
Channels (non 23 (12) 11 (3) 11 (3)
overlapped)
Standard required 6,12,24 1,2,5,5,11 6,12,24
speed (Mbps)
Modulation Technique OFDM DSSS DSSS/OFDM
17.1.3 Modes of 802.11 Wireless LANs
WLANS use either ad hoc mode or infrastructure mode for communication. If a wireless device
needs to communicate with only a single device or few devices for a short period of time. It uses
the ad hoc mode of WLAN. In the ad hoc mode, the devices directly send WLAN frames to each
other.
The ad hoc mode of WLAN is shown in figure 17.2..
If a wireless device needs to communicate over the entire network. It uses the infrastructure
mode of WLAN. In the infrastructure mode, devices communicate with the AP ( Access Point)
which is connected to the network using a wired Ethernet. This mode allows WLAN devices to
communicate with the server and access internet in the wired network.
Ad hoc mode sends the frames directly between the devices, whereas the infrastructure mode
for WLAN cannot send frames directly. It uses the AP (Access point) for frame transmission.
The AP then forwards the frames to another WLAN device.
Infrastructure mode supports two types of services sets, namely Basic Service Set (BSS) and
extended service set (ESS). BSS uses only one AP to create the WLAN, whereas EES uses
multiple APs to create WLAN. ESS uses APs with over lapping cells that allows roaming
(moving in the coverage area while it is connected through same WLAN) in the larger area.
Wireless Encoding and Non overlapping DSSS Channels
When an AP or a WLAN NIC transmits data, it modulates the amplitude, phase and frequency
of the signal to encode the data into binary 0 or 1. The three general classes that can be used to
encode the data are Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) and orthogonal Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) changes the frequency of the signal in a pattern
which is known to the transmitting and the receiving device. Using this method, small data
packets are transmitted over different frequencies. The packet hops from one frequency to
another to reach the destination.
Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS) uses wide range of frequencies to transmit data
instead of sending data through a narrow band as it may be affected by interferences. It is
designed to use the 2.4 GHz unlicensed band of frequencies.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is another modulation technique which

splits the high speed data carrier into multiple lower-speed carriers. These lower-speed carriers
are then transmitted simultaneously over a particular RF spectrum. It uses multiple non over
lapping channels to transmit RF signals like DSSS and provide higher throughput.
Table 17.4 lists the three classes for encoding used by the IEEE standard WLANs.
Encoding Class Name Used by (WLAN Standards)

Frequency Hopping spread Spectrum (FHSS) 802.11
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 802.11b
Orthogonal Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 802.11a, 802.11g
Media Access (Layer 2)
WLAN devices are not separated into different cable segments as Ethernet LANs. Hence, if
multiple WLAN devices simultaneously transmit data over the same frequency ranges, collisions
may occur and the receiving device may not receive any of the transmitted signals. Additionally,
the transmitting device cannot receive the data.
WLAN uses the carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) algorithm to
solve this problem.
The steps of the CSMA/CA algorithm are given as follows:
1. Ensure that the medium (space) is not busy.
2. The random wait timer is set to avoid the collision of data before sending the frame.
3. Once the random wait timer is passed, once again ensure that medium is not busy.
4. After sending the frame, wait for the acknowledgement frame from the receiver.
5. If the acknowledge is not receive, resends the frame.
WLAN Security Standards
WLANs standards have progressed for strong security needs to resolve the problems in the
earlier WLAN security standards. WLAN initially developed a security standard called Wired
Equivalence Privacy (WEP) which had problems. The other three standards, namely 802.11i
WPA and WPA2 were developed to resolve the problems included in the WEP standard.
Lists the WLAN security Standards
Name Year Defined

Wired Equivalence Privacy (WEP) 1997 IEEE
Interim Cisco solution while awaiting 2001 Cisco. IEEE 802.1 x Extensible
802.11 Authentication Protocol (EAP)
Wi-Fi protected access (WPA) 2003 Wi-Fi Alliance
802.11i (WPA2) 2005+ IEEE
Chapter 10
SECURITY
Basic IP Traffic Management with Access Control Lists (ACL)
Cisco provides Access Control Lists (ACLs) to control the flow of traffic from one interface to the
other in a network. ACL also performs other tasks such as restricting telnet, filtering routing
information, prioritizing WAN traffic with queuing and triggering phone calls with Dial-on-
Demand Routing (DDR). A wildcard mask allows you to match the range of address in the ACL
statements. There are two references, which a router makes to ACLs such as, numbered and
named. These references support two types of filtering such as standard and extended. You
need to first configure the ACL statements and then activate them.
Access Control List
Access Control List (ACL) is a set of commands, which are grouped together to filter the traffic
that enters or leaves an interface. The ACL commands allow the administrator to deny or permit
traffic that enters the interface.
The functions of ACLs include the following:
 Reduce the network traffic and increase the network performance. For example, ACL
marks certain packets as important which processes before any other traffic are. This is
done on the basis of Queuing protocol. The router then does not process the unwanted
packets thus, reducing the network traffic and congestion.
 Control the flow of traffic in the network. For example, ACLs limit the routing updates.
Hence only specific information related to a network is transmitted over the network.
 Provide security for network access. For example, if one host is accessing a part of the
network, ACLs prevent other hosts from accessing the same portion of the network.
 Make decision about the type of network to be forwarded or restricted on an interface.

For example, ACLs can be created to allow e-mail traffic and restrict Telnet traffic.
You can create Access Control Lists in the global configuration mode. After creating the basic
group of ACL commands, you need to activate them. In order to filter traffic between interfaces,
ACL needs to be activated in interface Sub configuration mode. To use interface Sub
configuration mode, enter the interface command in the configuration mode of the router. You
must also specify one of the following directions in which the traffic should be filtered.
 Inbound – Filtering the traffic as it enters the interface
 Outbound – filtering the traffic before it leaves the interface.
If the ACL is set as inbound the router compares the incoming packet with the interface ACL
before it leaves the interface. If the ACL is set as outbound, the router forwards the received
packet to the exit interface where the packet is compared with the interface ACL. The Access
lists are available in the following two types:
 Numbered ACL – Unique number is assigned to each ACL
 Named ACL- Unique name is assigned to each ACL
Each of the below ACLs supports the following types:
 Standard ACL – it forwards or Filters the packet on the basis of source addresses only.
 Extended ACL – it forwards or Filters the packet on the basis of source as well as
destination addresses.

Ccna 640-802

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Ccna 640-802

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Basic Networking:

Network topology is defined as the physical interconnection of the various elements

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

LAN Local Area Network

 This is used in a small area, an office or organization

 The rate at which the data is transmitted is very fast

MAN Metropolitan Area Network

 This is used in a large geographical area, town or city

 Enables high speed connections using fiber optic

WAN Wide Area Network

 This is used in a larger area than MAN, countries or cities

Half Duplex Mode

Full Duplex Mode

HALF DUPLEX FULL DUPLEX

Chances of collision if client and server There are no chances of collision

Switches break up collision domain.

3) BRIDGE : It is similar to switch.

There are two advantages of using routers in the network:

• They don’t forward broadcasts by default

ADVANTAGES OF REFERENCE MODEL

• It encourages industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer

• It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.

THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body

Seven layers of the OSI model

• The type of interface card used on networking devices.

• The type of cable used for connecting devices

• The connectors used on each end for the cable

Physical layer devices are : HUB, cable, connector etc

DATA LINK LAYER:

Data link layer devices are: Switch and Bridge

Data link layer is divided into sub layers:

Network layer device: Router

Protocol used in this layers are:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) & UDP(User Datagram Protocol)

ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ISO standard)

EBCDI – Extended Binary Code for Decimal Interchange (IBM prop.)

Eg: Telnet, HTTP, SMTP, TFTP

HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY TO DECIMAL VALUES:

HEXADECIMAL BINARY DECIMAL

• Process / Application layer

• Host to host layer

• Network Access Layer

Process / Application Layer :

TFTP – Trivial File Transfer Protocol (No authentication)

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

DNS – Domain Name Service

BootP – Boot strap Protocol (For booting purpose of diskless machines)

DHCP – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (For assigning IP addresses automatically)

This layer function same as Transfer layer of OSI reference model.

Protocols used in this layers are TCP & UDP.

Protocols used in this layer are:

ICMP (Internet Control Messing Protocol)

It is used for messaging purpose

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

It resolves IP address to its associated MAC address

RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

It resolves MAC address to its associated IP address

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

Some important terms related to Internet Protocol

Bit – A bit is one digit, either 1 or 0

Byte – A byte is 8 bits