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The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Cristy L. Guenther presented on
July 10, 2007.
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Jennifer E. Tanner, Chair
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Charles W. Dolan
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David E. Walrath
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APPROVED:
Abstract
Shear strength is an important property in civil engineering materials and structures.
Several practical concrete structures result in loading conditions with high shear and low
moment such as corbels, brackets, composite floor systems and bridge decks. Shear failure in
concrete is undesirable due to the brittle nature of failure. In addition, it remains difficult to
predict accurately, despite all the research in the area. Experimental and analytical work has
been conducted to investigate a modified Iosipescu test as a means of measuring the direct shear
strength of plain concrete beams. The Iosipescu loading configuration results in shear failure in
a predefined plane, and the failure path is completely contained within the region of high shear.
While other researchers have argued different failure modes for similar loading configurations, it
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is concluded from this study that high shear stress along the failure plane causes high principal
tension. Finite element analyses show that the failure planes observed in the specimens are
defined by the orientation of principal tensile stress. Combined with the experimental results,
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these finite element analyses provide a means to predict failure based on the magnitude and
orientation of the principal tensile stress.
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Evaluation of Shear and Diagonal Tension in Plain Concrete
by
Cristy Louise Guenther
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requirements for the degree of
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MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Laramie, Wyoming
August, 2007
UMI Number: 1446905
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Acknowledgements
graduate school, and for her guidance along the way. Thanks to Tyler Robison for all his
assistance in construction and testing. Thanks to JVI Neoprene for providing neoprene for this
project. I would like to thank fellow current and former students Matthew Olsen, Patrick
Lindblom, Cody Parker, Eric Anderson, Christina Behrens, Emre Insel, Kyle Eyre, Jiangang
Deng, Yuan Li, and Zach Gutierrez for making the office a better place, and John Coombs for
making graduate school fun and always keeping me in line. Thanks to my best friends Katie and
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Rachel and my boyfriend Jason for always being there when I needed them. Thanks to the
professors in the department of Civil and Architectural Engineering for making a difference in
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my life. Thanks to everyone in the machine shop for all of their assistance. I would like to thank
the members of my committee including Dr. Jennifer Tanner, Dr. Charles Dolan and Dr. David
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Walrath. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for all they have done for me; I
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Table of Contents
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2.3.2 Model 1 Results .................................................................................................... 30
2.3.3 Long Beam Model 2 ............................................................................................. 33
2.3.4 Model 2 Results .................................................................................................... 33
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2.4 Theory of Elasticity....................................................................................................... 35
2.4.1 Model .................................................................................................................... 35
2.4.2 Results................................................................................................................... 36
3 Experimental Testing ............................................................................................................ 38
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3.1 Testing Program............................................................................................................ 38
3.2 Test Procedures............................................................................................................. 39
3.2.1 Compression Cylinders......................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Split Cylinders ...................................................................................................... 39
3.2.3 Iosipescu Beam Test ............................................................................................. 41
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List of Figures
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....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 15: Normal stresses along diagonal of Iosipescu beam for different loading conditions. 23
Figure 16: Shear stress along diagonal of Iosipescu beam for different loading conditions ....... 24
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Figure 17: Shear stress along centerline of Iosipescu beam for different loading conditions ..... 25
Figure 18: Stresses along diagonal for Iosipescu beam modeled with a unit thickness .............. 26
Figure 19: Stresses along diagonal for Iosipescu beam modeled using actual thickness ............ 27
Figure 20: Long beam model....................................................................................................... 29
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Figure 21: Shear stresses in beam section near concentrated load (not to scale) ........................ 31
Figure 22: Normal stresses in beam section near concentrated load (not to scale) ..................... 32
Figure 23: Shear stresses in beam section near concentrated load (not to scale) ........................ 34
Figure 24: Beam geometry and applied loads (Timoshenko and Goodier 1970) ........................ 35
Figure 25: Shear stresses along line n-n for different values of b/c............................................. 36
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Figure 26: Testing apparatus used for splitting tensile strength of 4 in. cylinders ...................... 40
Figure 27: Test setup for splitting tensile strength of 6 in. cylinders .......................................... 41
Figure 28: Modified Iosipescu test fixture................................................................................... 42
Figure 29: Free body diagram of test fixture ............................................................................... 42
Figure 30: Loading, shear, and moment diagrams for Iosipescu beam test................................. 43
Figure 31: Loading point setup .................................................................................................... 44
Figure 32: Neoprene used to compensate for unparallel surfaces ............................................... 44
Figure 33: Modified Iosipescu Beam Test................................................................................... 45
Figure 34: Modulus of rupture beam ........................................................................................... 46
Figure 35: Test setup for splitting tensile strength of a prism ..................................................... 47
Figure 36: Failure stress ratio versus compressive strength ........................................................ 48
Figure 37: Differences in cracks based on aggregate size ........................................................... 50
Figure 38: Test results for pea gravel ........................................................................................... 51
Figure 39: Test results for 3/8 in. aggregate ................................................................................. 52
Figure 40: Test results for ¾ in. aggregate ................................................................................... 53
Figure 41: Specimen size effect in split cylinder test results....................................................... 54
Figure 42: Results for 4 in. split cylinders................................................................................... 55
Figure 43: Iosipescu beam results................................................................................................ 56
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Figure 44: Modulus of rupture test results................................................................................... 56
Figure 45: Split prism test results ................................................................................................ 57
Figure 46: Comparison of Iosipescu beam results........................................................................ 58
Figure 47: Iosipescu beam specimen from Mix 1 shown before testing and at failure ............... 60
Figure 48: Iosipescu beam specimen from Mix 6 shown before testing and at failure ............... 60
Figure 49: Loading, failure path, principal tensile stress surface plot, and direction of principal
tensile stresses (psi)....................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 50: Comparison of shear stresses in beam without notches ............................................. 62
Figure 51: Shear stress along centerline for different notch depths............................................. 63
Figure 52: Shear stress along centerline for Bazant and Pfeiffer (1986) and Ingraffia and
Panthaki (1985)............................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 53: Loading configuration, failure path, and principal tensile stress surface plot (Ingraffia
and Panthaki 1985) ....................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 54: Loading configuration, failure path, and principal tensile stress surface plots (Bazant
and Pfeiffer 1986) ......................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 55: Free body diagram of Iosipescu test brackets and concrete specimen (UW)............. 73
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Figure 56: Loading, shear, and moment diagrams for Iosipescu beam test................................. 74
Figure 57: Specimen and loading of Iosipescu beam test............................................................ 76
Figure 58: Applied loads for Iosipescu beam FEM model .......................................................... 77
Figure 59: Loading configuration and dimensions used for Bazant and Pfeiffer FEM............... 78
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Figure 60: Loading configuration and dimensions used for Ingraffia and Panthaki FEM .......... 79
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List of Tables
Table 1: Comparison of maximum shear and bending stresses in long beam ............................. 31
Table 2: Comparison of maximum shear and bending stresses in long beam ............................. 34
Table 3: Experimental test results................................................................................................ 49
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1 Introduction and Background
Shear failure in plain concrete is the formation of a crack that forms when principal tensile
stresses exceed the tensile strength, otherwise known as diagonal tension failure. In reinforced
concrete design shear reinforcement begins to work after cracking. Shear failures are considered
undesirable because they reduce the ductility of structural elements and may cause catastrophic
failure if the concrete and shear reinforcement are not sufficient to carry the load. Shear failure
remains difficult to predict accurately, despite all the research in the area.
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Shear failure in unreinforced concrete is a brittle failure and occurs suddenly with no
advanced warning. With increasing load, tensile cracks form where the tensile stresses exceed
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tensile strength and will cause immediate failure of the element. A typical concrete element is a
beam, which is generally reinforced with steel to stop the progression of cracks. Beams subject
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to bending stresses have longitudinal reinforcement effective in resisting tension near the tension
face of the beam. Shear stresses increase in proportion to increasing loads, and significant
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diagonal tensile stresses are created in regions of high shear forces and low moment, especially
close to supports. Consequently, concrete beams are provided with shear reinforcement to
increase the probability of a ductile failure controlled by yielding of flexural reinforcement rather
than a brittle shear failure. Adequate designs must account for tensile stresses resulting from
shear alone or those resulting from combined shear and bending. For this reason it is important to
have a model to predict the loads at which these cracks will form.
There are two types of shear cracks in traditional simply supported reinforced concrete
beams subject to gravity loads. 1) Vertical flexural cracks form first and are distributed in the
center of the beam. Cracks in zones of moderate shear may propagate diagonally forming
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flexure-shear cracks. 2) Cracks form perpendicular to diagonal tensile stresses at locations of
high shear and low moment. Near the ends of a simply supported beam subject to gravity loads
these cracks are oriented at 45˚. For beams with small shear span–to-depth ratios (Figure 1), the
shear stresses are very high while the flexural stresses are very low. At a location of high shear,
V, and small bending moment, M, there will be little to no flexural cracking before the formation
of shear cracks and a direct shear failure can occur. Generally, beams with smaller shear span-
to-depth ratios have greater shear strength than beams with large shear span–to-depth ratios. For
beams subjected to concentrated loads, the major variable affecting the mode of failure is the
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distance from the load to the support, and the depth of the member.
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Chapter 11 of ACI 318 defines building code requirements for shear and torsion. Unless
designs use strut and tie models, the cross sections subject to shear are designed based on
Equation (1), where Vu is the factored shear force at the section, Vn is the nominal shear strength,
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Vn Vu
Equation (1)
The nominal shear strength is computed by Equation (2), where Vc is the nominal shear provided
Vn = Vc + Vs
Equation (2)
Section 11.3 of ACI 318 covers the shear strength provided by concrete for nonprestressed
members. For members subject to shear and flexure only Vc can be calculated according to
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Equation (3), where f’c is the concrete compressive strength, bw is the width of the web, and d is
the distance from the compression face of the beam to the centroid of the tensile steel.
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Vc = 2 f 'c bw d
Equation (3)
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Engineers may calculate Vc using the more detailed calculation of Equation (4), where w is the
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reinforcement ratio, Vu is the factored shear at the section, and Mu is the factored moment at the
section.
Vu d
Vc = (1.9 f 'c + 2500 w )bw d 3 .5 f ' c Equation (4)
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The value of Vud/Mu is equivalent to the depth to shear span ratio. Figure 2 shows with an
increasing depth to shear span ratio there is an increase in shear strength when calculating Vc
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4.0
3.5
3.0
Shear strength/ f’c (psi)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0 Equation 4
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2 f'c
0.5
3.5 f'c
0.0
0 1 2 3
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Depth to shear span ratio
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Figure 2: Increase in shear strength based on depth to shear span ratio
There are conditions where small shear span–to-depth ratios occur in reinforced concrete
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members such as squat shear walls. Other common situations occur in precast concrete
structures particularly in regions near connections. Shear forces must be transferred across the
interface between a beam and a composite slab or at the supports of precast elements such as
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Figure 3: Small shear span-to-depth conditions
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Although many researchers have created testing programs to predict the shear strength of
plain concrete beams, one of the major problems in shear strength studies is determining the
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concrete shear strength at a location of high shear and low moment (direct shear strength) as
opposed to the shear strength determined by combined flexure and shear (flexure-shear strength).
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This study modified the Iosipescu test (Iosipescu 1967) to develop a method for measuring the
shear strength of plain concrete in confined locations such as shown in Figure 3. The Iosipescu
loading scheme induces a high shear stress at the center of the specimen. The high shear region
occurs where the moment approaches zero and results in direct shear failure of test samples.
Experimental and analytical work has been conducted to investigate a modified Iosipescu
test fixture proposed by Ross (2000) as a means of measuring the shear strength of plain concrete
beams. A final test procedure proposed by Ross (2000) has been further investigated as a
standard test for determining shear resistance of plain concrete over a wide range of concrete
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mixtures. Iosipescu beam test results were compared to results from ASTM standardized tests
for the tensile and compressive strength of concrete to confirm the need for a new standard.
Finite element results are compared to experimental results to evaluate shear strength. The
Iosipescu test provides a simple and effective method to experimentally confirm the confined
Literature was reviewed regarding the origin of the Iosipescu shear test for metals, along
with similar shear tests for plain concrete beams. The information is summarized and discussed
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in the following sections.
specimens under pure shear stresses. A pure shear load is generated using a simple device that
generates a shear force in a straight beam in the area of zero moment and results in failure of the
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specimen. Prior to this test, shear testing procedures existed, but none that produced failure of
the material under shear stress alone. The solution of the problem of pure shear testing was
established by Iosipescu on the basis of principles of strength of materials and the theory of
elasticity. Iosipescu found it was necessary to weaken the specimen in the desired failure section
by means of angular notches. Two 90˚ notches were cut to ¼ of the beam depth on both the top
and bottom surfaces (Figure 4). A photoelastic study on Plexiglas was used to experimentally
confirm the model. Iosipescu believed this study indicated that using notches ensured maximum
shear stresses remained constant through the cross section. First used for studies of shear
strength in railway weldments, this test has subsequently been applied to other rolled metals and
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cast metals. Iosipescu shear tests are now applied to non-metal materials. The V-notched beam
test, ASTM D5379, established a standardized procedure for testing the shear properties of
composite materials. Composite materials are limited to fiber reinforced polymer laminated
composites.
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Figure 4: Specimen geometry and loading for Iosipescu shear test and ASTM D 5379
Iosipescu and Alexandrescu (1965) proposed a similar device to test concrete in pure
shear. They believed that it was necessary to weaken the specimen using notches to ensure that
the specimen fractured in pure shear. Two 90 degree notches cut to a depth a quarter of the
height were made in each specimen. By weakening the test pieces, the authors believed that a
pure shear state occurred and maximum shear stresses were uniformly distributed throughout the
section. The specimens usually fractured along the centerline between notch tips (Figure 4).
Specimens failed in pure shear, and because of the notches the failure plane was vertical along
the centerline. Iosipescu concluded that this test method could be used for the pure shear testing
of concrete.
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A research program was conducted by Bazant and Pfeiffer (1986)1 at Northwestern
University to investigate the shear fracture of concrete. In the terminology of fracture mechanics
shear fracture is referred to as Mode II failure. Similar to Iosipescu, notched beams were loaded
in a manner that produced concentrated shear forces and failure. The test specimens used were
beams with rectangular cross section and a constant length-to-depth ratio of 8:3. Specimens of
various depths (1.5, 3, 6, and 12 inches) were tested while maintaining a constant thickness of
1.5 inches. All beams were cast from the same batch of concrete and symmetric notches (0.1 in.
wide) were cut to a depth of one sixth the beam depth on the top and bottom surfaces at the
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center of each specimen. When loaded, cracks propagated between the two notch tips resulting
in failure of the specimen (Figure 5a). The authors concluded that shear fracture exists. Tests
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were also repeated using wider shear spans and in these cases the cracks propagated from the
notch tip in a direction normal to the maximum principal tensile stress. Maximum loads
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measured from the specimens with a small shear span were found to be greater than the
Bazant and Pfeiffer (1986) believed that their test method was a good way to measure
pure Mode II fracture. This conclusion was further supported by linear elastic finite element
results. They believed that the cracks initiated from the notch tips and propagated continuously
The behavior in the tests described by Bazant and Pfeiffer (1986) conflict with those
observed in similar specimens tested at Cornell University (Ingraffia and Panthaki 1985)2.
Again, tests were performed with similar loading, but with only a single notch in the bottom
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This journal article is based on conference proceedings from 2nd Symposium on the Interaction of Non-Nuclear
Munitions on Structures, Panama City Beach, FL, April 15-19, 1985.
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Results discussed in this article were originally published in 1981. Arrea, M., and Ingraffia, A.R., 1981, “Mixed
Mode Crack Propagation in Mortar and Concrete”, Department of Structural Engineering Report 81-13, Cornell
University
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center of the beam. However, the principal loads were applied further from the notch tips. In all
the tests performed, fractures initiated at the notch tip in a direction normal to the principal
tensile stress (Figure 5b). Similar tests were performed on limestone and granite specimens with
comparable behavior patterns. One of the important conclusions of these tests was that shear
fracture did not occur in the specimens. Ingraffia and Panthaki conducted a linear elastic finite
element analysis on the specimen geometry of Bazant and Pfeiffer (1986) to validate the
findings. Finite element analysis showed the principal stresses in the region between notch tips
were tensile, and the direction of the stresses was horizontal. The diagonal region between the
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two center supports had uniform tensile stresses. The shear stress distribution shows that the
minimum shear stress is in the center of the beam and maximum near the notch tips. To validate
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the finite element model the authors used theory of elasticity, arguing that by moving the center
loads closer together the intensity of shear stresses were decreased rather than increased. It was
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concluded that the failure was similar to a splitting tensile strength test, and the failure mode was
actually cracking due to principal tensile stresses rather than shear fracture.
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