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Lisa Rankin
November 4, 2003
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Mental Models in Online Banking Page 2 of 14
Introduction
Mental models are schemas that contain varying degrees of detail and accuracy and guide
a user’s expectations and understanding of a tool (Muramatsu, 2001). They are constructed from a
user’s perception, imagination, or interpretation of reality (Khella, 2002). Wickens states that
mental models generate a set of “expectancies” regarding how the system will behave (1998).
Thus, designers can increase the learnability and ease-of-use of a system by designing it to reflect
a user’s existing mental models for a set of tasks. Most users are not even conscious of their
mental models but they use them continuously to understand and interact with a system.
Wickens states that the more often one recognizes a situation or object, the stronger the
memory trace will be, and the easier it will be to remember the objects in the future. Thus, the
ability to retrieve and reactivate information depends on how frequently and how recently it has
been used. This considered, casual users who don’t interact with a computer system frequently,
will have a more difficult time remembering how to use the system than more frequent users. To
assist a user with learning system tasks, mental models can be used to trigger similar experiences,
helping users to retrieve information that may be useful in accomplishing the task at hand.
Mental models generate a set of “expectancies” on how the system will behave (Wickens,
1998). When presented with new information about an event, the mind searches for previously
stored mental models that have similar structures (Khella, 2002). This enables people to make
quick inferences and react to new information. If a person does not have a similar mental model
to recall, a new one will be created. Accordingly, a designer should try to create an interface that
is easy for a user to understand by constructing it to resemble similar models a user has stored in
“terms of the uses to which the system will be put” (Lockwood & Constantine, 1999).
Design begins with the designer’s mental model of what the system should look like to
support the user (Lockwood & Constantine, 1999). “In the Design of Everyday Things,” Donald
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• The Design Model: How the designer chooses to represent the model.
• The User’s Mental Model: How the user understands the system.
• The System Model: How a system works from the perspective of the programmer.
Norman explains that ideally, a user’s model and the design model should be the same (1988, p.
189). He then stresses that it is the designer’s responsibility to create an interface that adequately
reflects the system. This ensures that it is “functional, learnable, and useable” (Norman). The
user, he states, understands the system through the system image (p. 190). Thus, designers should
design the interface to reflect the users’ backgrounds, knowledge, and experiences (Sasse, 1997).
In contrast, the system model should be transparent to the user. That is, users do not need to know
The ability of a system to reflect a user’s preexisting mental models can influence the
usability and ultimately, the success of the system. For example, banks should design an interface
that reflects a user’s existing mental models and supports the creation of new mental models. This
can be done by leveraging a user’s knowledge based on previously performed banking activities
such as logging on to an ATM, viewing statements, and paying bills. Century Bank is an example
of a bricks-and-mortar bank that now offers its customers the ability to bank online. It is faced
with the challenge of modifying its users’ existing mental models and helping them to create new
People are comfortable using an ATM to withdraw cash, deposit money, and view
balances. They are used to logging on to an ATM by swiping their bank card so the magnetic
strip can be read and entering their PIN. Since this behavior is engrained in most users, it would
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Century Bank, however, ignores the user’s mental model regarding how to use an ATM.
Rather, it creates a brand new model for how a user should access a banking system. Below are
the series of steps a user needs to complete to log in to an ATM and to log in to the Century Bank
online system.
The “Internet Banking ID” and “Internet Banking PIN” are unique numbers that are
different from the customers’ card number (or account number) and their ATM PIN. A customer
receives their “Internet Banking ID” and “Internet Banking PIN” by mail when they sign up for
Internet Banking. By using an arbitrary “Internet Banking ID” and “Internet Banking PIN” rather
than a customer’s existing card number and PIN, Century Bank forces the customer to learn a
new way of accessing the same banking system. To make matters worse, if a customer wants to
enter the “eXpress Pay” section of the Century Bank web site, they have to enter another
randomly generated ID and password. The “eXpress Pay” section enables the user to manage
online bill payments. To enter “eXpress Pay,” once they have entered the system (outlined above)
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As one can see, the method for logging in to Century Bank’s “Internet Banking” is much
more difficult than accessing an ATM. This design could have been simplified if the designers
considered a user’s past experience with ATMs and required the user to enter only their bank card
number and their ATM PIN. Moreover, the design is further complicated by requiring the user to
enter an additional “Express Pay ID” and “Express Pay Password” to enter the bank’s online
payment section of the site. The system is particularly challenging to the “casual user” as they are
not likely to remember the combination of IDs and passwords that must be used to access the
Viewing Balances
Banking customers traditionally view balances when a statement is mailed to them each
month. The statement shows all of the transactions that occurred during the month. This includes
debits and credits. While statements are still mailed to customers who use online banking every
month, customers now have the opportunity to log on to the Century Bank internet banking site to
download or view their statements electronically. Additionally, internet banking sites let users
filter through transactions based on date, amount, and check number (Exhibit 7).
Banking online provides increased sorting and viewing capabilities. This forces the user
to create a new mental model regarding how bank statements can be viewed. In “Software for
Use,” Constantine and Lockwood state that a user’s mental model of a system develops over a
period of time based on the user’s interaction with the system interface. The user eventually
develops an understanding of the system, how to use it, and how it reacts. This is also true with
online banking. While banks that offer internet banking can build upon the mental model of
viewing statements, users will have to modify their model to benefit from the increased sorting
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and viewing functionality offered. This will happen as they advance from a novice to an expert
user.
Before internet banking, customers paid bills by writing checks from their check books.
Now, however, using internet banking, customers can pay bills online. This increases efficiency
by eliminating the need for stamps and envelopes and by electronically recording payments. The
later enables a user to easily review their transaction history. Online banking also enables users to
set up recurring payments so that they don’t have to write a check each month. However, the
mental model used to pay bills online is different from the one use to write checks. For example,
a customer that is logged in to the Century Bank internet system and is ready to begin paying bills
using the eXpress pay functionality (Step 8 above) must complete a new set of tasks to submit a
payment online. The table below lists the tasks that a customer needs to complete to make a
8 Drop in mailbox
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As one can see paying a bill online is much quicker than paying a bill in the traditional
manner. Clearly, the steps required to pay a bill are very different for each of the two methods. In
this case, it would not be useful to create a system that mimics a user’s preexisting mental model
of paying bills. For example, a user does not need to sign their name when making an online
payment. Adding this step and others to the online payment process to better reflect the user’s
Initially users may be weary about paying bills online. Many users may not realize that a
check from the bank has actually been sent when they click on the “send payment” button. This is
because they are used to detaching the check, putting it in an envelope, placing a stamp on the
envelope, and putting it in a mailbox. Thus, the system should ensure that the user realizes that
their payment has been sent and no further action is required. As the user employs the system
more frequently to pay bills online, his mental model will become stronger. This will result in a
Mental Models
When customers begin to use internet banking they are likely to begin as novices. This
means that they will only use the most basic features like viewing account balances. However, as
they become more knowledgeable with the system and advance to an expert user, they will use
more functionality such as online bill payments, transfers, and stop payments. Designers can help
guide a user from novice to expert by designing the system interface based on the users’ mental
In Sasse’s thesis “Eliciting and Describing Users’ Models of Computer Systems,” she
discusses the distinctions between different types of user models. One model, the task-action
mapping model, describes “the structure of a real world task and the actions needed to perform
that task” (Sasse, 1997). Models derived from task-action mapping enable a user to use a system
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even though the user has no detailed knowledge of how the system works (Sasse). This is evident
in the case of writing checks online. The user does not need to know how the system actually
processes the checks and sends money to the payees. The user simply has to know how to enter
For a task-action mapping model to be effective there must be consistency within the
interface. That is, the same action will occur every time that a user clicks on a specific icon or
presses a “Send Payment” button. Throughout the Century Bank site, design inconsistencies make
it difficult for a user to create a mental model. For example, on the Century Bank home page, the
icon used to represent internet banking is shown as a computer monitor with a dollar sign on top
of it (Exhibit 1). Clicking on this icon brings the user to a second page that also has an internet
banking icon. This time the icon is a computer mouse with a dollar sign on top of it (Exhibit 2).
The user must click this icon to get to the log in page. Thus, two different images are used to
direct the user to the same task. This inconsistent use of icons makes it difficult for the user to
The task-action mapping model uses tasks as a user’s starting point (Sasse, 1997). This
model is useful in designing internet banking systems since users will often visit a banking site
with specific tasks in mind such as viewing accounts or paying bills. However, relying solely on
task-action mapping could create inefficiencies in the user’s interaction with the system. For
example, requiring a user to unnecessarily enter all of the fields on a check or simulating placing
the check in an envelope would add unnecessary steps and decrease productivity. Additionally, a
design that only represents a task-action model could hide important functionality and thwart user
performance (Sasse, 1997). Thus, in addition to supporting task-action models, system design
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Conclusion
mental models (Wickens, 1998). Century Bank could improve its user experience by having users
log in to the system in a way that is more consistent with logging in to an ATM. Additionally,
Century Bank needs to remove design inconsistencies from the interface. Design should be
consistent so that the interface reflects a “safe” environment where a user can learn the new
system by forming expectations of how it will behave when certain actions are taken (Davidson,
1999).
Wickens also states that system design should support the development of new mental
models. For example, the designer of an online banking system would not want to simulate the
entire traditional check writing process task-by-task. Instead, they would want to look at the goal
of the task and provide a streamlined way of paying bills. Users will then learn to develop a new
mental model of how to pay bills online. Although a customer’s prior experience with traditional
banking will provide them with a starting point when they begin to bank online, customers will
still need to develop new mental models to benefit from all of the system’s features and
functionality. This will occur when novice users become expert users. The more the design
leverages existing mental models, and supports the creation of new models, the easier the product
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Bibliography
Constance, L. and Lockwood, L. (1999). Software for Use. New York: ACM Press.
Davidson, M., Dove, L., Weltz, J. (199) Mental Models and Usability. Retrieved October 26,
Khella, Amir. (2002). Knowledge and Mental Models in HCI. Retrieved October 26, 2003 from,
http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/fall2002/cmsc838s/tichi/knowledge.html.
Muramatsu, J. & Pratt, W. (2001). Transparent Queries: Investigating Users’ Mental Models of
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/383952.383991.
Norman, D. (1988). The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Sasse, M. (1997). Eliciting and Describing Users’ Models of Computer Systems. University of
http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/a.sasse/thesis/Frontpage.html.
Wickens, C., Gordo, S., & Liu, Y. (1998). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering. USA:
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Exhibit 1
Exhibit 2
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Exhibit 3
Exhibit 4
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Exhibit 5
Exhibit 6
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Exhibit 7
Exhibit 8
Lisa Rankin