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Article history: Recordings from recent earthquakes have provided evidence that ground motions in the near field of a
Available online 11 November 2009 rupturing fault differ from ordinary ground motions, as they can contain a large energy, or ‘‘directivity”
pulse. This pulse can cause considerable damage during an earthquake, especially to structures with nat-
Keywords: ural periods close to those of the pulse. Failures of modern engineered structures observed within the
Rehabilitation near-fault region in recent earthquakes have revealed the vulnerability of existing RC buildings against
Retrofit pulse-type ground motions. This may be due to the fact that these modern structures had been designed
Near-fault earthquake
primarily using the design spectra of available standards, which have been developed using stochastic
FRP
Dynamic analysis
processes with relatively long duration that characterizes more distant ground motions. Many recently
RC building designed and constructed buildings may therefore require strengthening in order to perform well when
subjected to near-fault ground motions. Fiber Reinforced Polymers are considered to be a viable alterna-
tive, due to their relatively easy and quick installation, low life cycle costs and zero maintenance require-
ments. This paper presents the results of a study of the response of typical existing RC buildings to
near-fault ground motions and the potential improvements achievable after FRP retrofitting of the build-
ings. Results demonstrate the successful implementation of FRP with an improvement in stiffness,
strength and lateral displacement capacity of the rehabilitated structure. It is demonstrated that
strengthening with FRP is very effective in reducing drift demands for structures for a wide range of nat-
ural periods.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0263-8223/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2009.10.017
A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211 1201
stochastic processes having relatively long duration that character- objective is to determine if the building should or should not be
izes more distant ground motions. On other hand, failures of mod- subjected to a more detailed investigation. In the evaluation pro-
ern engineered structures observed within the near-fault region in cess, a detailed investigation is performed on buildings with med-
recent earthquakes revealed the vulnerability of existing RC build- ium to high priority as a result of the screening exercise.
ings against pulse-type ground motions. Rehabilitation, i.e. seismic retrofit, becomes necessary if it is shown
Extensive investigations into the seismic performance of rein- that, through a seismic performance evaluation, the building does
forced concrete frame buildings have been performed [5–9]. These not meet minimum requirements of the current building code, and
studies showed at a local level that most of the damage is likely to that it may suffer severe damage or even collapse during a seismic
occur in the beam-column joint panel zone and that the formation event.
of soft-story mechanisms can greatly impair the global structural Once the potential losses in an existing building have been
performance of the systems. A comprehensive overview of tradi- quantified through a detailed seismic evaluation, a decision must
tional seismic rehabilitation techniques was presented by FEMA- be made whether to: (1) take no action, (2) do minimum repair
547 [10]. Conventional techniques which utilize braces, jacketing and/or modifications, (3) retrofit, or (4) demolish the building
or infills, as well as more recent approaches including base isola- and replace it with a new building.
tion and supplemental damping devices, have been considered to The decision on the course of action is usually complex because
strengthen the building and as such improve its behaviour. In the it involves many factors, which may include:
past decade, an increased interest in the use of advanced non-
metallic materials has been reported. (A) Technical considerations: level of expected damage (if col-
The objective of this research is to use the wealth of recent lapse may occur, options (1) and (2) are eliminated);
ground motion data to improve the understanding of the response required level of safety; availability of reliable rehabilitation
of typical reinforced concrete buildings to pulse-type ground mo- techniques; and availability of technical expertise and
tions that result from fling-step effects, and also to discuss the fea- equipment.
sibility and efficacy of a retrofitting intervention using FRP (B) Economic considerations.
composite materials in order to upgrade a far-fault earthquake de- (C) Social and political considerations.
signed RC building to a near-fault one.
The selection of adequate rehabilitation strategies depends on
2. Research significance the particular building in question. Some of the main factors affect-
ing this selection are: (1) fundamental period of vibration; (2) ac-
Reinforced concrete is the material of choice for the majority of tual strength; (3) initial stiffness; (4) deformability; (5) type of
structures in many places around the world. Because the design, mechanism; (6) local site conditions; (7) level of safety required;
construction and maintenance of a building have been governed and (8) level of seismic hazard.
and controlled by building codes and standards, the seismic vul- Traditionally, steel plates were used for strengthening RC mem-
nerability of an existing structure will be, to a certain extent, re- bers. The technique of steel plate bonding has proved to be a useful
lated to the seismic requirements of the codes used in its design. means in structural strengthening works [11]. However, the sus-
One of the most effective ways of minimizing potential earth- ceptibility of steel to corrosion, the difficulties of installing heavy
quake-related losses is to conduct reliable assessments of the vul- steel plates in congested and confined spaces, and the restrictions
nerability of existing structures and to develop and implement imposed by simple lifting and handling devices make it desirable
effective ways of rehabilitating structures identified as being haz- to seek other viable alternatives. The application of fiber reinforced
ardous. External bonding of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) com- polymer (FRP) materials has opened an exciting new path for
posites is now a well-established technique for the rehabilitation structural repair and strengthening. The prime material types that
of RC structures. are useful as reinforcing fibbers for strengthening applications are
In the current study, the results of 168 nonlinear time-history glass, carbon and aramid. FRPs have very low self weight but high
(NTH) analyses that were conducted on six RC buildings are pre- strength-to-weight ratio and do not exhibit any corrosion prob-
sented. In the presentation, the common failure modes exhibited lems. This results in low maintenance costs. Such versatility may
by these RC buildings during far-fault earthquakes will be dis- predict a rapid increase in their usage.
cussed. The buildings were then strengthened using FRP compos-
ites and the analyses were re-done. The results show the 4. Characteristics of near-fault ground motions
potential strengthening benefits and the changes in the structural
characteristics of the buildings. The near-fault of an earthquake can be defined as the area in the
close vicinity of the fault rupture surface. Besides strong shaking,
3. Seismic risk reduction and rehabilitation of existing the characteristics of near-fault ground motions are linked to the
buildings fault geometry and the orientation of the traveling seismic waves
[12]. Vertical strike–slip faults can produce a directivity effect,
Past earthquakes have demonstrated the power of nature and and dip–slip faults can produce directivity effects as well as hang-
the catastrophic impact of such power upon urban populations. ing wall effects. Hanging wall effects are felt on the hanging wall of
Protecting existing buildings through retrofitting is a challenge a fault (the earth above a vertically dipping fault), and are due to
for the engineers involved in the mitigation of seismic hazards. the proximity of much of the fault to hanging wall sites. Directivity
Seismic retrofitting of buildings is a relatively new occupation for effects can be classified as forward, reverse, or neutral. Fig. 1 por-
most structural engineers. The retrofitting of a building requires trays the three zones of directivity, with the star representing the
appreciation of the technical, economic and social aspects of the is- epicenter and the black line indicating the fault.
sue at hand. In general, the practice of seismic risk reduction is to The rupture directivity pulse is oriented in the strike-normal
follow a three-step process of screening, evaluation and direction and the static ground displacement (fling-step) is oriented
rehabilitation. parallel to the fault strike. Fling step is a result of the evolution of
Screening entails assessing buildings to ascertain their level of residual ground displacement due to tectonic deformation associ-
seismic risk, by following a simplified procedure whose main ated with rupture mechanism. This phenomenon is characterized
1202 A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211
200
150
Velocity [cm/sec] 100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time [sec]
200
Displacement [cm]
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time [sec]
200
150
Velocity [cm/sec]
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Time [sec]
200
Displacement [cm]
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time [sec]
Fig. 3. Structural configuration of: (a) 3-, 6- and 10-story; and (b) 14-, 16- and 19-story buildings (units: meter).
1204 A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211
Table 1
Dimensions and amount of reinforcement of columns and shear walls in the 10-story building.
Building Story Corner column Perimeter column Internal column Shear wall
2 2 2
Dim.(cm) Reo. (mm ) Dim. (cm) Reo. (mm ) Dim. (cm) Reo. (mm ) Thickness (cm)
10-story 1 60 60 2100 60 60 1880 60 60 1930 –
2 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 –
3 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 –
4 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 60 60 1200 –
5 50 50 910 50 50 1335 50 50 950 –
6 50 50 840 50 50 910 50 50 840 –
7 50 50 840 50 50 900 50 50 840 –
8 40 40 775 40 40 1070 40 40 840 –
9 40 40 600 40 40 880 40 40 600 –
10 40 40 600 40 40 880 40 40 600 –
Table 2
Dimensions and amount of reinforcement of beams in 10-story building.
Table 3
Far-fault ground motion database.
No. Earthquake Year Station Comp. MW Dis. (km) PGA (g) PGV (cm/s) PGD (cm)
1 Kern County 1952 Taft 111 7.4 81 0.17 17.47 8.83
2 Tabas 1978 Dayhook TR 7.4 107 0.4 26.17 9.1
3 Imperial Valley 1979 Calexico 225 6.5 90.6 0.27 21.23 8.98
4 Loma Prieta 1989 Presidio 000 6.9 83.1 0.099 12.91 4.32
5 Loma Prieta 1989 Cliff House 90 6.9 84.4 0.107 19.78 5.06
6 Manjil 1990 Abbar L 7.3 74 0.51 42.46 14.92
7 Kocaeli 1999 Ambarli 90 7.4 78.9 0.18 33.22 25.84
Table 4
Near-fault ground motion database.
No. Earthquake Year Station Comp. MW Dis. (km) PGA (g) PGV (cm/s) PGD (cm)
1 Kocaeli 1999 Sakarya 90 7.4 3.1 0.37 79.49 70.56
2 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU052 N 7.6 0.24 0.41 118.51 246.27
3 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU052 W 7.6 0.24 0.34 159.04 184.51
4 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU068 N 7.6 1.09 0.46 263.1 430.0
5 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU068 W 7.6 1.09 0.56 176.65 324.27
6 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU072 W 7.6 1.79 0.3 112.47 89.23
7 Chi-Chi 1999 TCU128 W 7.6 9.7 0.139 73.06 90.66
strain and emax is the strain at peak stress. The descending, or the the orthotropic constitutive relationship developed by Darwin
strain-softening, branch is idealized by the Bazant et al. model [20]: and Pecknold [21] is used for modeling the concrete using the
smeared cracking idealization. The constitutive matrix, D, is given
e
r ¼ rc exp ð1 e=emax Þ ð2Þ by:
emax
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
where rc is compressive strength of the concrete. For uniaxially E1 m E1 E2 0
1 6 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 7
loaded concrete, rc is equal to fc0 . D¼ 4 m E E
1 2 E2 05 ð3Þ
ð1 m2 Þ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
For analysis of most plane stress problems, concrete is assumed 0 0 14 ðE1 þ E2 2m E1 E2 Þ
to behave as a stress-induced orthotropic material. In this study,
A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211 1205
2.5 normal to the cracks for the cracked concrete. The concept of the
Imperial Valley ‘‘equivalent uniaxial strain” developed by Darwin and Pecknold
Response Acceleration (g)
Kern County [21] is utilized to relate the increments of stress and strain in the
2 principal directions. Therefore, stress–strain curves similar to the
Kocaeli
Loma Cliff uniaxial stress–strain curves can be used to formulate the required
1.5 Loma Presidio stress–strain curves in each principal direction.
Manjil The strength of concrete, rc, and the values of E1, E2 and m are
TabasDayhook functions of the level of stress, and the stress combinations. The
1 concrete strength when subjected to biaxial stresses is determined
using the failure envelope developed by Kupfer et al. [22]. The val-
0.5
ues of E1 and E2 for a given stress ratio (a = r1/r2) are found as the
slopes of the r1 e1 and r2 e2 curves, respectively. For the
descending branches of both compression and tension stress–
0 strain curves, Ei is set equal to a very small number, 0.0001, to
0 1 2 3 4 avoid computational problems associated with a negative and zero
Period (sec) values for Ei. The concrete is considered crushed once the equiva-
lent compressive strain in the principal directions exceeds the ulti-
Fig. 4. Elastic acceleration response spectra of far-field ground motion recordings mate compressive strain of the concrete, ecu. For determination of
used in the evaluation of each building.
the concrete ultimate compressive strain, ecu, two models for
unconfined high and normal-strength concrete (Pastor [23]) and
confined concretes (Chung et al. [24]) are implemented into the
1.6 program.
Kocaeli In order to eliminate numerical problems after crushing (e > ecu)
1.4
Response Acceleration (g)
TCU52-N and cracking of the concrete (e > etu), a small value is assigned to
1.2 TCU52-W the compressive and tensile stresses as a fraction of concrete
TCU68-N strength, cc fc0 and ct ft0 , at a high level of stress (Fig. 6a), where
1
TCU68-W parameters cc and ct define the remaining compressive and tensile
strength factors, respectively.
0.8 TCU72-N
Regarding the stress–strain relationships for cyclic loading, it is
TCU128
0.6 important to distinguish between the unloading paths before and
after the compression strength (Fig. 6b) is exceeded. In the first
0.4 case, the unloading path is a straight line defined by the elastic
modulus E0 and tensile stresses are still possible. In the second
0.2 case, the unloading path does not reach the tensile region. After
exceeding the maximum tensile strength, cracks occur perpendic-
0
ular to the principal stress direction. Based on a smeared crack
0 1 2 3 4
model a smeared crack width is then calculated.
Period (sec)
7.2. Crack modeling techniques
Fig. 5. Elastic acceleration response spectra of near-fault ground motion recordings
used in the evaluation of each building.
Cracking of the concrete is one of the important aspects of non-
linear material behaviour of the concrete. Besides reducing the
in which E1 and E2 are the tangent moduli in the directions of the stiffness of the structure, cracks have resulted in redistribution of
material orthotropy, and m is the Poisson’s ratio. The orthotropic stresses into the reinforcing steel as well as increasing the bond
material directions coincide with the principal stress directions stress at the steel–concrete interface [25]. Cracking of the concrete
for the uncracked concrete and these directions are parallel and is idealized using the fixed smeared cracking model and is assumed
Fig. 6. The stress–strain relationship of concrete for: (a) monotonic loading; (b) cyclic loading.
1206 A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211
The element library includes plane membrane and plate bend- In nonlinear analysis, the total load applied to a finite element
ing as well as a facet shell element which is a combination of the model is divided into a series of load increments called load steps.
plane membrane and plate bending elements. Fig. 8 shows some At the completion of each incremental solution, the stiffness ma-
of these elements and the associated degrees of freedom. The pro- trix of the model is adjusted to reflect nonlinear changes in struc-
gram employs a layered finite element approach. The structure is tural stiffness before proceeding to the next load increment. The
idealized as an assemblage of thin constant thickness plate ele- Newton–Raphson equilibrium iterations for updating the model’s
ments with each element subdivided into a number of imaginary stiffness were used in the nonlinear solutions. Prior to each solu-
layers as shown in Fig. 8c. Each layer can assume any state – being tion, the Newton–Raphson approach assesses the out-of-balance
load vector, which is the difference between the restoring forces
and the applied loads. Subsequently, the program carries out a lin-
ear solution using the out-of-balance loads and then checks for
convergence. If convergence criteria are not satisfied, the out-of-
balance load vector is re-evaluated, the stiffness matrix is updated,
and a new solution is carried out. This iterative procedure contin-
ues until the results converge.
inter-story drift demands and component/story-level ductility de- For the 6-story building, the maximum story demand for far-
mands; hence these results have not been included here. The peak fault records is observed to be either at the second or third story
inter-story drift profiles obtained from NTH analyses of the build- levels and depends on the frequency content of the motion. For
ings subjected to the two sets of ground motions (i.e. far-fault mo- near-fault records, the demands at the upper levels are much high-
tions, near-fault motions with fling-step) are presented in Fig. 9. er. Of the entire data set, the TCU068-W record generated the high-
For the 3-story building, far-fault motions produce nearly uni- est demand (31.8 mm inter-story drift) at the third story.
form inter-story drift demands for most records, with the excep- For the 10-story building, the TCU052-W record generated the
tion of the Loma-Cliff record. In case of near-fault records, they highest demand (35 mm inter-story drift) at the seventh story level.
impose higher demands in comparison to far-fault records, though Higher-mode effects are predominant in many of the near-fault re-
the maximum drift is generally concentrated at the middle story cords causing a shift in demands from the lower to upper stories.
levels. The largest demand was caused by the TCU052-W record, For the 14-story building, the maximum story demand for far-
which produced 34.4 mm inter-story drift at the second story. fault records is observed to be either at the 7th or 8th story levels
3-story building
4
4
Kocaeli TCU052-W
Story
Story
2 Loma-Cliff 2 TCU068-N
Loma-Presidio TCU068-W
Manjil TCU072
1
1 TCU128
Tabas-Dayhook
0
0 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 Drift (mm)
Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
6-story building
7 7
6 6
Kocaeli
Imperial Valley
5 Kern County 5 TCU052-N
Kocaeli TCU052-W
4
Story
4
Story
Loma-Cliff TCU068-N
3 Loma-Presidio
3
TCU068-W
2 Manjil 2 TCU072
Tabas-Dayhook TCU128
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40
Drift (mm) Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
10-story building
12
12
10 Imperial Valley
10 Kocaeli
Kern County TCU052-N
8 8
Kocaeli TCU052-W
Story
Story
Loma-Cliff 6 TCU068-N
6
Loma-Presidio
TCU068-W
4 Manjil 4
TCU072
Tabas-Dayhook
2 TCU128
2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 10 20 30 40
Drift (mm) Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Maximum inter-story drift for each building subjected to: (a) far-fault earthquakes, (b) near-fault earthquakes with fling-step.
1208 A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211
14-story building
15 15
14 14
13 13
12 Imperial Valley 12 Kocaeli
11 Kern County 11 TCU052-N
10 10
Kocaeli
Story
9 9 TCU052-W
Story
8 Loma-Cliff 8 TCU068-N
7 7
Loma-Presidio 6 TCU068-W
6
5 Manjil 5 TCU072
4 Tabas-Dayhook
4
TCU128
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
Drift (mm) Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
16-story building
17 17
16 16
15 15
14 Imperial Valley 14 Kocaeli
13 13
12 Kern County 12 TCU052-N
11 11
Kocaeli Story 10 TCU052-W
Story
10
9 Loma-Cliff 9 TCU068-N
8 8
7 Loma-Presidio 7 TCU068-W
6 Manjil
6
5 TCU072
5
4 Tabas-Dayhook 4 TCU128
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 25
Drift (mm) Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
19-story building
20 20
19 19
18 18
17 17
16 16
15 Kocaeli
15
14 Imperial Valley 14 TCU052-N
13 Kern County 13
12 12 TCU052-W
Story
Kocaeli
11
Story
11 TCU068-N
10 Loma-Cliff 10
9 Loma-Presidio 9 TCU068-W
8 8
7 Manjil TCU072
7
6 Tabas-Dayhook 6 TCU128
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30
Drift (mm) Drift (mm)
(a) (b)
Fig. 9 (continued)
and depends on the frequency content of the motion. Though sim- to the response of the 6- and 10-story buildings, the response of
ilar observations hold for near-fault records, the demands at the the 3-story building demonstrates that even for low-rise buildings,
upper levels are much higher. Of the entire data set, the TCU052- higher-mode effects could be significant.
N record generated the highest demand (18.84 mm inter-story
drift) at the roof story. Similar results were observed for 16- and
19-story buildings. In both buildings, the TCU052-N record gener- 9. Seismic retrofitting with fiber reinforced polymer
ated the highest demand (21.1 mm and 24.5 mm inter-story drift
for 16- and 19-story buildings, respectively). Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials are composites con-
The variation in story demand for the far-fault records is less sisting of high strength fibers embedded in a polymeric resin
significant. While higher-mode effects are expected to contribute (Fig. 10). Fibers in an FRP composite are the load-carrying elements,
A. Mortezaei et al. / Composite Structures 92 (2010) 1200–1211 1209
200000
175000
125000
100000
75000
50000
25000 Original
Rehabilitated
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Drift ratio (%)
Fig. 14. Energy dissipation curves for original and rehabilitated buildings.
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strengthening of unreinforced masonry walls using composites. Compos
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