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QUANTUM PHYSICS
1) The energy density increases with wavelength then takes a maximum value Em for
a particular wavelength λm and then decrease to a value zero for longer wavelengths. Hence
the Energy distribution in the spectrum is not uniform
2) As the Temperature increases the Wavelength (λm) corresponding to the
maximum emission energy (Em) shifts towards shorter wavelength side. Thus the λm is
inversely proportional to temperature (T) and is called Wein’s Displacement Law.
Mathematically . Here b is Wein’s Constant of value 2.898x10-3 mK.
3) The total energy emitted by the black body at a given temperature is given by the
area under the curve and is proportional to the fourth power of temperature. This is called
Stefan’s law of radiation. Mathematically E = σ T4 here ‘σ’ is the Stefan’s constant of value
5.67 x 10-8 Wm2K-4.
Here C1 and C2 are empirical constants. A suitable selection for these constants helps
to explain the experimental curve in the shorter wavelength region. The drawback of this
law is it fails to explain the curve in the longer wavelength region. Also according to this
equation the energy density at high temperatures tends to zero which contradicts
experimental observations.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
British Physicists Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans made an attempt to explain the
Black Body radiation spectrum Based on the concepts formation of standing electromagnetic
waves and the law of equipartition of energy. According to this law the energy density of
radiation is given by
Here ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant with value 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1. This law successfully
explains the energy distribution of the black body radiation in the longer wavelength region.
According to this law black body is expected to radiate large amount of energy in the
shorter wavelength region thus leading to no energy available for emission in the longer
wavelength region. Experimental observations show that the most of the emissions of the
black body radiation occur in the visible and infrared regions. This discrepancy is called
Ultraviolet Catastrophe.
According to Planck’s law of radiation the expression for energy density of radiation
is given by
Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light, ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant and ‘h’ is Planck’s
constant. This law explains the distribution of energy in the black body radiation spectrum
completely for all wavelengths and at all temperatures. Also this law can be reduced to
Wein’s distribution law in the shorter wavelength region and to Rayleigh-Jeans law in the
longer wavelength region.
⇒ , ≈ ≈ ……….(1)
Using Planck’s equation,
Where, and
We have, ……….....
⇒
Again using Planck’s equation,
Dept. of Physics, Jain University 3
QUANTUM PHYSICS PRASANNA BP
is reduced to
Photo-Electric effect
“The emission of electrons from the surface of certain materials when radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on it is called the phenomenon of Photo-Electric effect.” The
electrons emitted are called photo electrons and the material is said to be photo sensitive.
This was discovered in the 1887 by Henrich Hertz.
This is called Photoelectric Equation. Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident
radiation
Here ‘ ’ is the threshold frequency and ‘v’ is the velocity of electron and ‘m’ the
mass. Thus from the photoelectric equation, if the frequency of the radiation ν < no
photoelectrons are emitted.
Compton Effect
“The phenomenon of scattering of X-rays from suitable material and hence increase
in its wavelength is called Compton Effect.”
When X-rays are incident on certain materials they are scattered and the scattered
X-rays contain two components. One component has the same wavelength as the incident
X-ray and the other with wavelength greater than the incident X-rays. This is due to the
scattering of X-ray photons from the electrons present in the material. Due to the transfer
of energy from X-ray photon to electron the wavelength of X-ray increases and the electron
recoils. This can be treated as collision between two particles. Thus Compton Effect signifies
particle nature of radiation. The change in wavelength which is also called Compton Shift is
given by
Here ‘λ’ is the wavelength of incident X-rays and ‘λ’ ‘is the wavelength of scattered X-ray ‘θ’
is the scattering angle and ‘m0’ is the rest mass of electron. The quantity is called
Compton Wavelength.
Experimental verification
A beam of monochromatic X-rays are allowed to fall on a graphite crystal as shown
in the figure. The intensity of the scattered X-rays is measure as a function of wavelength of
X-rays, at different scattering angles. At each angle, two peaks appear corresponding to
scattered X-ray photons with two different wavelengths. The wavelength of one peak does
not change as the angle is varied. This is called primary or unmodified component. We
denote it by λ. The wavelength of the other peak varies strongly with the angle and hence it
Dept. of Physics, Jain University 5
QUANTUM PHYSICS PRASANNA BP
is called modified component. Ii is denoted by λ’. This effect is called Compton effect.
The change in wavelength ∆λ is called Compton shift.
Stability of atom
According to Rutherford model the atom is made up of a central charge, now called
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. If the electrons surrounded the nucleus are at
rest, the equilibrium conditions of the system can not be reached by electrostatic forces
between positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus.
For example, consider the case of helium atom whose nucleus carries a charge +2e with
two electrons out side the nucleus each having the charge –e. Suppose the two electrons
are symmetrically placed at a distance r from the nucleus as shown in fig.
e × 2e
Force of attraction between nucleus and each electron =
4πε 0 r 2
e×e
Force of repulsion between two electrons =
4πε 0 (2r )
2
This shows that the attractive force is eight times greater than the repulsive force.
As the two forces do not balance each other, the electrons will fall in to the nucleus thereby
destroying the stability of atom.
To over come this difficulty of stability of atom, Rutherford proposed that electrons
might be assumed to revolve round the nucleus with such a speed that the outward
centrifugal force balances the net electrostatic attraction towards nucleus. Thus for an
electron having a charge –e and mass m revolving in an orbit of radius r with velocity v
around nucleus with charge +Z, we have,
e × Ze mv 2
=
4πε 0 r 2 r
From above expression, it can be concluded that an electron can rotate in an infinite
number of orbits.
The allowed energy values corresponding to allowed energy levels are given by
− me 4
En = 2
8n 2 h 2ε 0
2. The theory does not give any information regarding the distribution and arrangement of
electrons in an atom
3. The theory does not explain the experimentally observed variations in intensity of the
spectral lines an element.
4. The theory fails for accounting the fine structure of spectral line.
5. The theory cannot be used for the quantitative explanation of chemical bonding.
6. The theory fails to give correct results when an electric or magnetic field is applied to the
atom.
its velocity.
Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident radiation and ‘h’ is Planck’s constant. If ‘m’ is the
mass equivalent of the energy of the photon then
Since the frequency of the incident radiation could be expressed in terms of wavelength
‘λ’as we get,
Thus, according to de Broglie’s hypothesis, for a particle moving with velocity ‘v’ the above
equation can be modified by replacing the momentum of photon with the momentum of the
moving particle ‘mv’. Therefore the de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle
is given by
…… (1)
Here ‘m’ is the mass of the moving particle.
Here ‘m’ is the mass of the electron and is given by 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Substituting the value of ‘v’ in equation (1) we get
Since the electron acquires kinetic energy from the applied potential difference ‘V’ The
kinetic energy of the electron is also given by E=eV where ‘e’ is the charge on electron with
value 1.6 x 10-19C
Hence the expression for the de Broglie wavelength
Davisson-Germer’s experiment:
Davisson and Germer were studying the phenomenon of scattering of electrons from
material targets and they observed diffraction of electrons in a crystal of nickel, similar to X-
ray waves undergoing diffraction in crystals, thus proving the wave behavior of electrons.
FIGURE:
The electron gun (G) consists of a filament which upon heating by a low-tension
battery emits electrons. These emitted electrons are accelerated by applying a high
potential from a high-tension battery and using a series of metallic diaphagrams as slits, a
narrow beam of electron is obtained. This narrow beam of electrons is incident normally on
the Nickel crystal (N) mounted on a rotatable stand. The electrons incident on the Nickel
crystal undergo scattering in all directions inside the crystal, just as X-ray waves are
scattered in the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction by crystals. The scattered electrons are
collected by the ionization chamber (C) and the current due to these collected electrons is
measured by the galvanometer connected to the ionization chamber. The ionization
chamber can be rotated along a circular path S to collect the electrons at various scattering
angles φ .
Initially by applying a constant potential of 40V, the ionization current was noted as
a function of scattering angle φ and the same was repeated by applying 44,48,54,60 and 68
volts respectively.
A polar plot of ionization current and scattering angle φ, for various applied
potentials is obtained as shown in the figures. In the polar plot, for each data point, the
angle of inclination to Y-axis equals the scattering angle and the length of the arrow to the
data point gives the ionization current.
At the acceleration potential of 40V, as seen from figure, the variation is found to be
smooth without any maxima or minima. However, at V=44volts a distinct maxima was
observed as seen in figure and this maxima became more and more pronounced till 54V.
With further increase in applied voltage, this maximum declines and fades away as seen in
Fig. The values of applied voltage and the scattering angle φ at which the ionization current
was maximum was found to be V=54volts and φ =50 degrees (Fig ).
To explain the observation of distinct maxima of the ionization current over a certain
scattering angle φ , Davisson & Germer proposed that the incident electron beam is
scattered from the nickel crystal as a beam of monochromatic waves associated with
electrons (i.e., De-Broglie waves or Electron waves associated with the electron) similar to
X-ray waves undergoing diffraction in crystals.
12.26 1.226 × 10 −9
λ= Ao = = 1.66 × 10 −10 m
V 54
According to Bragg’s law the diffracted waves from a crystal undergo constructive
interference only for that angle of incidence θ which satisfies the equation
nλ = 2d sin θ
−10
In the above evaluation we have taken the value of d = 0.91 × 10 m for the lattice
spacing in a nickel crystal.
The experimentally determined value is in good agreement with the value calculated
according to de Broglie’s hypothesis. Thus Davisson and Germer experiment not only
confirms the wave associated with moving particle it also verifies the de Broglie’s
hypothesis.
He suggested that stationary orbits those in which orbital circumference (2πr) is an integral
multiple of de-Broglie wavelength λ, i.e., stationary orbits for an electron are those which
contain the complete wave of electron. Thus
2π r = nλ where n=1,2,3…..
h
But, λ = substitute in the above equation
mv
h h
2π r = n or mvr = n
mv 2π
mvr is the angular momentum of the electron as particle. The above equation is nothing
but Bohr’s postulate, i.e., the total angular momentum of the moving electron is the integral
h
multiple of .
2π
Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light and ‘v’ is the velocity of the article.
From the above expression it is evident that the phase velocity is not only greater
than the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of light. Hence there is no
physical meaning for phase velocity of matter waves.
Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due to the superposition of many
component waves whose velocities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave packet is
formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels is called group velocity which is
same as particle velocity. It is denoted by vg.
We know that
………..(3)
But and since very small
Therefore equation (3) could be written as
……..(4)
Compare the eqn.(4) with eqn.(1)
Eqn.(4) represents the resultant wave whose amplitude varies as
or
………….. (1)
Differentiating we get
Differentiating we get
= …………… (1)
The total energy of the particle is given by E= Kinetic energy + Potential energy
The product of the errors is of the order of Planck’s constant. If one quantity is measured
with high accuracy then the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity becomes less
accurate.
Physical significance: According to Newtonian physics the simultaneous
measurement of position and momentum are “exact”. But the existence of matter waves
induces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy associated with the simultaneous
measurement. Hence the “Exactness” in Newtonian physics is replaced by “Probability” in
quantum mechanics.
-ray microscope
Consider an imaginary experiment in which an electron is tried to be spotted using a
high resolution -ray microscope.
Here ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the scattered -ray photon, θ is the semi vertical
angle.
According to the definition of limit of resolution becomes the uncertainty in the
determination of position of the electron. In order to observe the electron, the scattered
photon from the electron must enter the microscope anywhere within angle of . The x
component of momentum ∆px may lie between and . Here p is the
momentum of the photon is given by . Since the momentum is conserved during the
collision, the uncertainty in the x component of momentum is given by
Thus the product of the uncertainties is of the order of ‘ h ’. More rigorous calculation results
in the value
In producing the diffraction pattern on the screen all the electrons have passed
through the slit but we can not say definitely at what place of the slit. Hence the uncertainty
in determining the position of the electron is equal to the width ∆y of the slit. From equation
(1) we have
λ
∆y = ………..(2)
sin θ
Initially the electrons are moving along the x-axis and hence they have no component of
momentum along y-axis. After diffraction at the slit, they are deviated from their initial path
to form the pattern and have a component p sin θ . As y component of momentum may lie
anywhere between p sin θ and − p sin θ . Uncertainty in y component of momentum is
h
∆p y ≈ p sin θ − (− p sin θ ) ≈ 2 p sin θ ≈ 2 sin θ ……….. (3)
λ
Hence from equations (5) and (6)
λ 2h sin θ
∆y × ∆p y ≈ × ≈ 2h
sin θ λ
∆y × ∆p y ≈ h
Thus the product of the uncertainties is of the order of ‘ h ’. More rigorous calculation results
in the value
Wave function
A wave is constituted by a periodic oscillation of a particular physical quantity. For
ex, in case of water waves, the quantity that varies is the height surface, in sound waves it
is the pressure variation and in case of electromagnetic waves it is the variation of electric
and magnetic fields that constitutes the electromagnetic wave.
In case of waves associated with material particles (matter waves) the quantity
whose variations make up the matter waves is called the wave function and is denoted
byψ . The value of the wave function ψ ( x, y , z , t ) of a body at the point ( x, y , z ) in space and
time t , determines the likelihood of finding the body at the location ( x, y , z ) at that instant of
time ‘ t ’
The wave function for a wave moving along x-axis in complex notation is given by
Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle in the width ‘dx’ of length ‘x’
Similarly, for three dimension, the probability of finding a particle in a given small volume
dV of volume V is given by
here
Here ‘P’ Probability of finding the particle at given location per unit volume and is called
Probability Density.
According to Max Born’s interpretation
The wave function is complex the probability density is given by
Where * is the complex conjugate of and the above product results in real number.
Thus
If we are unable to locate the particle in volume V then the notion can be extended
to the whole space with
But, normally, the value of the above integral will not be unity but contains an indefinite
constant which can be determined along with sign using above considerations. The process
is called normalization and the wave function which satisfies the above condition is called
normalized wave function.
Operators
An operator ‘O’ is a mathematical operation which may be applied to a function f (x)
which changes the function to another function g (x ) . This can be represented as,
O f ( x) = g ( x)
d 3
For example,
dx
( )
x + 1 = 3x 2
d
In operator language, it may be stated that when the operator operates on
dx
function (x 3
)
+ 1 , it changes to 3x 2 .
Now we shall illustrate the importance of remembering the order in which the
individual operations must be carried out.
For example, if we first operate function f (x ) on the operator x , getting x f (x ) , and
d
next operate the result with then the final result is
dx
d
[x f ( x ) ] = x d f ( x ) + f ( x )
dx dx
d
Now if we operate f (x) first with and then the result with operator x , then the
dx
d
result is x f (x)
dx
d
So that [x f ( x ) ] ≠ x d f ( x )
dx dx
∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= along + ve X − axis
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
Here ψ = ψ 0 e − i ( ϖt − kx ) ..................(2)
Where ψ0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration ω is angular frequency and k is
Wave Number.
Dept. of Physics, Jain University 19
QUANTUM PHYSICS PRASANNA BP
∂ 2ψ
2
= − k 2 ψ .......... ....( 4 )
∂ x
Using Einstein and deBroglie equations
E 2π p 2π
ω= and k =
h h
Substitute the above in the equations (3) and (4)
∂ψ 2π
(3) ⇒ = − iE ψ
∂t h
− h ∂ψ
or = E ψ ........( 5 )
i2π ∂ t
∂ 2ψ 2 4π
2
( 4) ⇒ = − p ψ
∂ x2 h2
h 2 ∂ 2ψ
or − 2 2
= p 2 ψ.........(6)
4π ∂ x
The total energy of the moving particle is given by
E = K.E + P.E
p2
or = (E − V)
2m
Multiply above equation throughout by Ψ, we get
p2
ψ = E ψ − Vψ
2m
Substituting, for Eψ and p 2 ψ from equations (5) and (6) resp., we get,
h 2 1 ∂ 2ψ 1 h ∂ψ
− 2 2
+ Vψ = −
4π 2m ∂ x i 2π ∂ t
h 2 ∂ 2ψ ih ∂ψ
or − 2 2
+ Vψ = .......(7) Q −1 = i 2
8π m ∂ x 2π ∂ t
Equation (7) is the one-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation.
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘ v ’ along +ve X-axis. The deBroglie
wave length ‘λ
λ’ is given by
h
λ= .................. (1)
mv
∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= ..................(2) along + ve X − axis
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
∂ 2ψ
2
= −ω 2ψ 0 e −i (ϖt − kx ) ..................(4)
∂t
Substituting equation (4) in equation (2)
∂ 2ψ 1 1
(
= 2 − ω 2ψ = ) (− 2πf )2ψ Here f is the frequency of the wave and λ is the wave length
∂x 2
v ( fλ ) 2
∂ 2ψ 4π 2
∴ 2 = − 2 ψ
∂x λ
∂ 2ψ 4π 2
⇒ 2 + 2 ψ = 0
∂x λ
Substituting for λ from equation (1) we get
∂ 2ψ 4π 2
+
∂x 2 h 2 ψ = 0
mv
∂ 2ψ 4π 2 2 m 2 v 2
+ ψ =0
∂x 2 h 2 2
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m 1
2
+ 2 mv 2ψ = 0 ..................(5)
∂x h 2
1
The kinetic energy of the particle mv 2 is given by
2
1
mv 2 = E − V here E is the Total Energy of the particle and V is the Potential Energy
2
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m( E − V )
2
+ ψ =0
∂x h2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m( E − V )
+ + + ψ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h2
8π 2 m( E − V )
∆2ψ + ψ =0
h2
∂2 2 ∂2 ∂2
Here ∆ = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ bouncing back and forth between the walls of one
dimensional potential well. The particle is said to be under bound state. Let the motion of
the particle be confined along the X-axis in between two infinitely hard walls at x=0 and
x=a. Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the particle during the collision
with walls and the total energy remains constant.
Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls it exists only inside the potential
well. Hence ψ=0 and the probability of finding the particle outside the potential well is also
zero.
Since the potential inside the well is V=0, the Schrodinger wave equation is given by
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m(E − 0)
+ ψ =0
∂x 2 h2
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m E
∴ + ψ =0
∂x 2 h2
∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m E
+ k2 ψ = 0 .................(1) Here k 2 = ...........(2)
∂x 2 h2
For the given value of E, k is constant. The general solution for the equation (1) is given by
ψ ( x) = A sin kx + B cos kx ...............(3) Where A and B are arbitrary constants. The values of
0 = Asin0 + B cos0
∴B = 0
Hence equation(3) becomesψ (x) = Asinkx ............(4)
0 = Asin ka
Since A ≠ 0 (Otherwiseno Solution), ka = nπ Where n= 1, 2, 3,……
nπ
⇒k = ...................(5)
a
nπ x
Thus the wave function becomes ψ ( x) = A sin ...............(6)
a
Also substituting the value of ‘k’ from eq (5) into eq (2) we get
2 2
nπ 8π m E n2h2
= ⇒ E= ...............(7) hence the energy Eigen
a h2 8ma 2
values.
h2
E1 = is the ground state energy of the particle and is also called zero point
8ma 2
energy.
Hence E n = n 2 E1 E2 and E3 are energies of the first and second excited states respectively
and so on. Hence for a particle in the bound state, the energy values are discrete.
nπ x
ψ ( x) = A sin
a
The value of the arbitrary constant ‘A’ can be determined by the process of
normalization. Since the particle has to exist somewhere inside the box we have
a a
0 0
a
nπ x
∫A sin 2 dx = 1
2
0 a
1
Since sin 2 θ = [1 − cos 2θ ] we have
2
A2 2 nπ x
a
∫
2 01 − cos
a
dx = 1 Integrating the equation we get
a
A2 a 2 π n x
x − 2nπ sin a = 1 The second term takes the value zero for both the limits
2 0
A2
∴ [a − 0] = 1 ⇒ A = 2
2 a
2 nπ x
ψ n ( x) = sin
a a
The wave functions and the probability densities for the first three values of ’n’ are as
shown in fig
Thus for ground state (n=1) The probability of finding the particle at the walls is zero and at
the centre (a/2) is maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the second excited
state has four nodes.
Dept. of Physics, Jain University 25
QUANTUM PHYSICS PRASANNA BP
LASERS
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser is a
highly “monochromatic coherent beam of light of very high intensity”. In 1960 Mainmann
built the first “LASER” using Ruby as active medium.
1. Stimulated Absorption: -
E2 When an atom in the ground state say E1 absorbs a photon
Photon of energy (E2 - E1) it makes transition into exited state E2. This
is called Stimulated or Induced absorption. It is represented as
E1 follows,
If the two atoms are in the same excited state and returns to some lower energy states
two photons of having same energy are emitted. These Two photons may not travel in the
same direction. They produce in-coherent beam of light. Spontaneous emission is
represented as follows,
3. Stimulated Emission: -Consider an atom in the excited state E2. If a photon of energy
E2 - E1 is made to incident on the atom in the excited state E2.
The incident photon forces (stimulates) the atom in the excited
E2 state to make transition in to ground state E1 by emitting
Photon hν difference in energy in the form of a photon. This type of
hν emission in which atom in the excited state is forced to emit a
E1 photon by the influence of another photon of right energy is
called stimulated emission. Stimulated emission can be
represented as follows.
When stimulated emission takes place, incident photon and the emitted photon are in phase
with each other and travel along the same direction. Therefore they are coherent.
coherent photons are produced. These four coherent photons so that stimulates 4 atoms in
the excited state, 8 coherent photons are produced and so on. As the process continues
number of coherent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute an intense beam
of laser. This phenomenon of building up of number of coherent photons so as to get an
intense laser beam is called lasing action.
Metastable State: - Population inversion can be created with the help of three energy
levels as follows.
As more and mare atoms are excited from the ground state to E1 more and more atoms
are transferred from E3 to E2. As a result, within a short interval of time population inversion
is established between energy level E2 and E1. The energy level E2 in which atoms remain for
unusually longer time is called Metastabte state. When transition from E3 to E2 takes place
excited atom looses energy in the form of heat without emitting any radiation. Such
transitions are called radiation less transition (Non-radiative transitions).
Appropriate amount of energy is to be supplied for the atoms in order excite them to
higher energy levels. If the Input energy is in the form of light energy then pumping is
called optical pumping. If it is in the form of electrical energy then pumping is called
electrical pumping.
Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the Active medium due to the
absorption of energy. After this stage the Active medium is capable of Emitting laser light.
The Laser Cavity consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors. The
Mirrors reflect the light two and fro through the active medium. This also helps to tap
certain permissible part of laser energy from the active medium.
Construction
• The ruby is a crystal of Al2O3 (Corundum) with some of the Al3+ ions replaced by Cr3+
ions. The chromium ions give the characteristic colour (red) to the ruby crystal. For the
purpose of laser production, the doping concentration of chromium ions is 0.05%.
• A single crystal of ruby in the form of a cylindrical rod is chosen. The length of the rods
can vary from 5 to 20 cm while their diameter can vary from 0.5 to 2cm.
• The end faces of the rod are made optically flat and parallel to each other. One face of
the rod is fully silvered while the other face is partially silvered
• The ruby crystal is placed along the axis of a helical Xenon flash tube. The xenon flash
tube is connected to a high voltage pulse generator. For each single voltage pulse, the
Xenon tube gives out flashes of powerful light which last for several milliseconds.
• Surrounding the flash tube is a cylindrical mirror whose function is to reflect light on to
the ruby crystal.
• During the working of the laser a lot of heat is generated. This heat is dissipated by
circulating cold water in thin tubes which surround the crystal.
• The ruby laser satisfies the four requisites needed for any laser system. The crystal rod
along with the mirrored faces functions as the resonant cavity. Optical pumping is
achieved using light from xenon flash tube. Chromium ions are the active medium,
which support population inversion.
•
Working
• As there are many levels present in this band, the number of photons available, for
exciting the ions, are many. Therefore numerous ions are able to absorb the photons
and make transition from the ground state to one of the levels of the band.
• The atoms in the 4F1 and 4F2 band reside there for a period of 10-8s and then make a
transition to the metastable levels 2Ā and Ē. The energy difference between the energy
bands and the metastable levels is not released as electromagnetic energy but is taken
up by the vibrating atoms of the lattice and is dissipated as heat. These kind of
transitions are non- radiative in nature.
4
• Therefore F1 ⇒ 2Ā
4
F1 ⇒ Ē
4
F1 ⇒ 2Ā Non-radiative transitions
4
F2 ⇒ Ē
• The 2Ā and Ē levels being metastable, the atoms reside in them for an unusually long
period of time. In a short while the number of atoms in the two metastable levels is
more than the ground level. Thus population inversion is established. Induced transitions
between these metastable levels and the ground state give rise to the needed laser
radiation. Transition from 2Ā to the ground state gives rise to photons of wavelength
692.8nm and the transition from Ē to the ground state gives rise to photons of
wavelength 694.3nm.
• The output of the laser is taken from the partially silvered mirror. In the output the
intensity of radiation of wavelength 694.3nm is more than the 692.8nm radiation. One
of the probable reasons for this could be that the population of the Ē level is more than
the 2Ā level. That is why more photons of wavelength 694.3nm would be released per
second. The second probable reason (although not significant) is that the probability of
transition from the Ē to the ground level is more than the probability of a transition from
2Ā level to the ground level. Why it is not significant is that the two levels have an
energy difference of only 0.004eV. This is not too great to cause a significant difference
in the probabilities.
• It is used in holography
• As drilling requires pulsed laser, ruby lasers are the most suitable
The biggest disadvantage of this laser is that since the output is discontinuous, its use is
limited to only special applications. Wherever continuous laser beam is required the helium -
neon laser is more suitable.
Construction: -It consists of quartz discharge tube of length 1m and diameter 1.5cm fitted
with Brewster’s windows on either side and filled with the mixture of He and Ne gas in the
ratio of 10:1. It is placed between two highly parallel plane mirrors one of which is
completely silvered while the other is partially silvered. The ends of the tube have two
electrodes which are connected to a high power voltage source.
Working: The energy level diagram for He and Ne atoms are as shown in the fig. When
discharge is produced in the tube large numbers of electrons are produced. These highly
energetic electrons collide with He atoms, which are abundant and excite them to energy
levels 21s or 23s of He system. This type of collision is called collision of first kind and
represented as follows,
e1+He → He + e2
When the helium atoms collide with the neon atoms in the ground state, because of close
E 13S ≅E E 2S3 ≅E
coincidence in the energy values 2 S ; 2S , resonant energy transfer takes
place from helium to neon atoms. As a result, the neon atoms get excited to 2S and 3S
levels, whereas the helium atoms return to the ground state. This is called 2nd kind of
collision and can be represented as
He* + Ne Ne* + He
Here, the states 3S and 2S are called as virtual metastable states because the energy
values of 3S and 2S of Ne are equal to the 21S and 23S metastable state of He. Thus
population inversion built up between 2S and 3S levels with the lower energy level 2p which
leads the laser transitions. [3S to 2p transition gives laser light of wavelength 6328Ao and
2S and 2p transition giving rise to 11523Ao radiation which is in the Infrared region]
Applications of Laser
Because of high intensity, high degree of monochromaticity and coherence, lasers find
remarkable applications in medicine, communication, defence, photography, material
processing etc.
Laser Welding
In performing the task of welding, laser welding is superior to other welding such as arc
welding, gas welding, electron welding, etc.
Advantages:
• Laser welding is a contact less process and thus no foreign materials can enter
into the welded joint.
• In this type of welding, no destruction occurs in the shape of work piece and the
heat is dissipated immediately ( since the total amount of heat supplied is very
small compared to the regular welding)
• The laser beam can be controlled to a great precision, so that we can focus the
laser beam precisely to the welding spot. Even we can weld difficult to reach
the locations in the material.
• Since the heat affected zones are very small, laser welding is ideal at places
which are surrounded by heat sensitive components.
Laser Cutting
Laser cutting of metals is generally associated by gas blowing. The oxygen gas is
passed through the nozzle and the tip of the nozzle is pointed at the spot, where the
laser beam is focused.
• The combustion of the gas burns the metal thus reducing the laser power
required for cutting.
• Also the tinny splinters along with the molten part of the metal will blow away by
the oxygen jet.
• The blowing action increases the depth and also the speed of cutting.
• The laser, which controls the accuracy of the cutting thus, the cut edges will be
high quality.
Advantages:
Drilling:
Advantages:
The tools wear out while drilling This problem doesn’t exist in laser
setup
Large force has to apply to drill the Very hard material or brittle
hard materials or brittle materials. materials can be drilled. There is no
mechanical stress with a laser beam.
Project the pulses of laser beam to the atmosphere, the area where the
pollutants are to be measured. The back scattered light by the congestion of matter
is detected by the photo detector. The reflected laser beam undergoes attenuation
due to the absorption by the pollutants in the atmosphere. Since different gases in
atmosphere absorb laser energy at different wavelength, the amount of absorbance
by each wavelength indicates the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere. The
energy of the attenuated beam received at the detector is integrated and compared
with the reference laser energy source. The difference in energy called error signal
is analyzed and convert into a readout signal by the computer. The reading indicates
the concentration and distribution of pollutants at different section in the
atmosphere. But it does not give any information about the nature of the scattered
particles. However it can be obtained by Raman back scattering experiment.
Laser light is passed through the sample and the spectrum of the transmitted light is
obtained.
Since laser is a monochromatic, hence, we expect only one line in the spectrum. But
due to Raman scattering, we are observing several lines along with the expected
line.
The other lines of low intensity lie symmetrically above and below to this line. These
additional lines are called side bands and their frequencies result when the oscillating
frequencies of the gas molecules are added or subtracted from the incident light’s
frequency.
Since different types of gas molecules will have different oscillating frequencies and
produce different side band.
Thus by observing Raman spectra of the back scattered light in the gas sample, the
nature of the scattering particles and their compositions can be measured.
HOLOGRAPHY
When an object is illuminated with the light source, the light gets reflected and
scattered from the various parts of the object and they carry the information of the
object in the form of intensity and phase.
** In Photography only the intensity is recorded and the phase information is lost
The interference pattern, which is formed due to the superposition of reference and
object beams, has the ability to produce the transmitted effect of the object beam,
without the presence of the object, by diffracting the reference beam.
** The photographic plate on which the interference fringes are recorded is the
hologram.
The holography consist of two steps process called recording and reconstructions of
the image.
(1) Wavefront division technique: [Wavefront: It is the locus of points where the
particles vibrate in the same phase simultaneously.]
-> The given object and a mirror are placed one below the other such that a
part of the expanded laser beam is incident on the mirror and remaining part
falls on the object.
->The part of light reflected from the mirror (plane Wavefront) called
reference beam is incident on the photographic plate.
When the light incident on the object, every point on the object scatters the
incident light.
Hence spherical wave fronts generates from each points on the object. The
reflected beam is called object beam which incident on the photographic
plate.
The photosensitive surface responds to the resultant effect of interference
between the spherical wavelets of the object beam, and the plane waves of
the reference beam. Thus the interference effects are recorded on the plate.
The interference pattern consists of concentric circular rings pattern that mark
successive regions of constructive and distructive interference. The ring
pattern is called Gabor Zone Plate. Every set of spherical wavelets that
start from each point on the object generates its own zone plates. Thus
recording consists of number of zone plates.
Such a developed photographic film is called hologram.
The beam splitter is oriented such that the reflected light incident on the
mirror and transmitted light incident on the object.
The mirror in-turn reflects the beam called reference beam, directly on to a
photographic plate kept at a suitable position for recording the image of the object.
The transmitted light, which is incident on the object, gets scattered. The
spherical wave fronts associated with the scattered rays serve as object beam and
interfere with the reference beam at the photographic plate and the resultant pattern
is recorded in it.
The photographic plate after the development becomes the hologram of the object.
Reconstruction Process:
When the light is incident on the hologram, diffraction takes place and
secondary waves originates from each constituent zone plate, which interfere
constructively in certain directions and generate both a real and a virtual image of
the corresponding point of the object on the transmission side of the hologram.
A real image will be formed infront of the hologram at the same distance as
that of the virtual image behind from the hologram.
By seeing through the hologram (like seeing through a window) from the
transmission side, it appears as though the original object is lying on the other side
of it at the same place. This is virtual image due to regeneration. By switching the
direction of view, different set of points which corresponds to constructive
interference are observed, which regenerate a different prospective of the object.
Therefore, it gives three dimensional effects.
Applications of Holography:
1. Holographic interferometry:
2. Diffraction grating:
When two parallel beams superpose on the photographic film, the interference
pattern consists of parallel straight fringes. The film when developed appears like a
grating. The quality of such a grating is much superior when compared to the
conventional grating in the sense that the grating constant in this case is truly a
constant .
3. Acoustic grating:
In this case two coherent ultrasonic breams, one reference and the other
reflected from an object, are made incident on a medium. The resulting interference
pattern serves as a grating for laser light, which forms an optical image of the
object. This is useful for imaging the human body parts and studying physical
changes.
4. Encoding :
If the reference beam is sent through a mask, then the interference pattern
becomes very unique. If an attempt is made to read the hologram and if the person
reading the hologram is not aware of the masking used, then he will not be able to
decipher the image of the object. This procedure ensures further secrecy in recording
information