Overview of GIS 

Introduction 
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to digitally
represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth' surface and the events
(non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that taking place on it. The meaning
to represent digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital form. 

"Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the fundamental key of associating
any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is a collection of information about things and their
relationship to each other, and 'geo-referencing' refers to the location of a layer or coverage in
space defined by the co-ordinate referencing system. 

Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in late 1970s from the lab of
the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as a result of innovations dating
back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early development of GIS goes to Roger
Tomilson. Evolution of GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners,
engineers, managers etc. conduct the database management and analysis. 

Some Interesting Links :

1. What is GIS ?
A complete compilation of information on GIS
2. GIS guide to Good Practice
A brief introduction to GIS and Archaeology
3. Introduction to GIS
An Introduction to GIS using Maps
4. An Introduction to GIS in Real Estate
Gil Castle's final draft of the real estate column appearing in Real Estate Issues, August
1995
5. A Brief Introduction to GIS Technology
Enhancing Community Capacity to use Spatial Information

Defining GIS 
A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial / geographical
coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially
referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data. It may also be
considered as a higher order map. 

GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis
with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities
distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public
and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.
(ESRI) 

A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally

reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the events that take place on it.
In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as it's
denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent
the given data geographically. 

A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given below:-

 A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and

analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth
 Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of
purposes"
 Arnoff in 1989 defines GIS as, "a computer based system that provides four sets of
capabilities to handle geo-referenced data :
 data input
 data management (data storage and retrieval)
 manipulation and analysis
 data output. "

Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and management of attributes
that needs to be analysed spatially. 

Some Interesting Links :

1. What is GIS ?
Geographical Information Systems Definition by GIS.Com
2. A revised Definition of GIS
For the purpose of Exploring Geographical Information Systems
3. Geographical Information Systems
U.S Geological Survey's definition of Geographical information Systems
4. GIS
Definition of GIS, Potential Links, and Products
5. Definition of GIS
David Walker's Resource Information
6. What is a GIS ?
Geographical Information Systems as defined by ESRI
7. Definition of GIS
A revised definition of Geographic Information System given by Chrisman
8. Definitions of GIS
Compiled by Kenneth E. Foote and Margaret Lynch, The Geographer's Craft Project,
Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin.
9. Geographical Information Systems : Definition
Definition of Geographical Information Systems by Data Access and Support Center,
State of Kansas
10. GIS - A Definition
ESRI Canada definition of GIS
11. Definition Of GIS: The Manager's Perspective
Paper presented at the International Workshop on Dynamic and Multi-Dimensional GIS
held at Hong Kong, 25-26th August 1997
12. What is a GIS ?
U.S Army Corps of Engineers definition of Geographical Information Systems
13. GIS : Definition
 Definition of GIS by the Northwest GIS Services Inc.

Answers GIS can give 

Till now GIS has been described in two ways:

1. Through formal definitions, and

2. Through technology's ability to carry out spatial operations, linking data sets together.

However there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions the technology can
(or should be able to) answer. Location, Condition, Trends, patterns, Modelling, Aspatial
questions, Spatial questions. There are five type of questions that a sophisticated GIS can
answer: 

Location What is at………….?

The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. A location can
be described in many ways, using, for example place name, post code, or geographic reference
such as longitude/latitude or x/y. 

Condition Where is it………….?

The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer. Instead of
identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find location(s) where certain
conditions are satisfied (e.g., an unforested section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within
100 meters of road, and with soils suitable for supporting buildings) 

Trends What has changed since…………..?

The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in land
use or elevation) over time. 

Patterns What spatial patterns exists…………..?

This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether landslides
are mostly occurring near streams. It might be just as important to know how many anomalies
there are that do not fit the pattern and where they are located. 

Modelling What if……………..?

"What if…" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if a new road is added
to a network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type
of question requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models). GIS
permits spatial operation. 

Aspatial Questions 
"What's the average number of people working with GIS in each location?" is an aspatial
question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of latitude and longitude; nor
does it describe where the places are in relation with each other. 

Spatial Questions 
" How many people work with GIS in the major centres of Delhi" OR " Which centres lie within 10
Kms. of each other? ", OR " What is the shortest route passing through all these centres". These
are spatial questions that can only be answered using latitude and longitude data and other
information such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can answer such
questions. 

Need of GIS? 
Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have recognized the
importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing information. Whether a discipline is
concerned with the very practical aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic
research, geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can provide
valuable insights as

1. 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator making spatial
analysis an essential tool.
2. Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-spatial (attribute
data).
3. Visualization Impact
4. Analytical Capability
5. Sharing of Information

Some Interesting Links :

1. GIS - The Need for Quality

An article by Richard Markham and David Rix
2. GIS Development Guide : Needs Assessment
An article by New York State Archieves

Factors Aiding the rise of GIS.

 Revolution in Information Technology.

 Computer Technology.
 Remote Sensing.
 Global Positioning System.
 Communication Technology.
 Rapidly declining cost of Computer Hardware, and at the same time, exponential growth
of operational speed of computers.
 Enhanced functionality of software and their user-friendliness.
 Visualizing impact of GIS corroborating the Chinese proverb "a picture is worth a
thousand words."
 Geographical feature and data describing it are part of our everyday lives & most of our
everyday decisions are influenced by some facet of Geography.

Philosophy of GIS 
The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data from widely divergent
sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused by development. 

For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical thinking. The system has
no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it depends upon the analyst. 
The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under:

 Spatial Analysis
 Database
 Software
 Hardware

GIS involves complete understanding about patterns, space, and processes or methodology
needed to approach a problem. It is a tool acting as a means to attain certain objective quickly
and efficiently. Its applicability is realized when the user fully understands the overall spatial
concept under which a particular GIS is established and analyses his specific application in the
light of those established parameters. 

Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate and long term, have
to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. benefit against cost) of the GIS will
depend largely on the quality of initial field data captured, organizational design has to be
decided upon to maintain this data continuously. This initial data capture is most important. 

Some Interesting Links :

 Philosophy of GIS
Msc Abstracts, 1996 UNIGIS U.K
 Philosophy of GIS
An article by NOAA National Data Centers, NGDCA
 Philosophy of GIS 
Original version of the invited article published in the December 1994 Journal of
Forestry, which was a special edition devoted to Forest Inventory.
 Implementing GIS in Lebanon
Implementing GIS in Lebanon - A Case Study by Jacques Ekmekji, Director GIS
Services Division/Associate Khatib & Alami - Consolidated Engineering Company Beirut
- Lebanon

Advantages of GIS 
The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and
monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the
advantage mentioned below:

 Planning of project
 Make better decisions
 Visual Analysis
 Improve Organizational Integration

Planning Of Project
Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component,
where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps
generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land
use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination
of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within
GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width and distance. 

Making Decisions
The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for other
information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to
query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has
been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve
territorial disputes, and siting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. 

Visual Analysis
Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape
can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape.
Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume
(Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments,
land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier. 

Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove
extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact
Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as
population distribution, market localization and other related features. 

Improving Organizational Integration

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is
improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to
link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and
communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of
another--data can be collected once and used many times. 

As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced,

productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility
company the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is
planned maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters. 

Some Interesting Links:

 Geographical Information Systems

Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods
 The GeoData Institute
The GIS Awarness Booklet by University of Southampton

Components of GIS 
GIS constitutes of five key components:

 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 People
  Method

Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware
system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera
FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the
Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further
processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A
digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters
are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup. 

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc. The software
available can be said to be application specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out
desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the
user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the
people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option. 

Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a
commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data
related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial
data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to
maintain their data, to manage spatial data. 

People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use
it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who useGIS can be broadly classified
into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of
this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS
engineer/user. 

Method
And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules,
which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various
techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either
be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images.
The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite
imagery. 

Some Interesting Links : 

 Components of GIS
A working GIS integrates five key components - ESRI
 Components of GIS
by Semcor Information Systems and Services
GIS Applications
Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in several
related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close interaction
between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping,
thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote sensing, image processing,
computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography. 

The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural resources.
The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the existence of an efficient
geographic handling and processing system to transform this data into usable information. 

The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various alternatives in

development and conservation planning and by modelling the potential outcomes of a series of
scenarios. It should be noted that any task begins and ends with the real world. Data are
collected about the real world. Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and
not desired) to handle every last detail. After the data are analysed, information is compiled for
decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken and plans implemented in the real
world. 

Major areas of application 

 Different streams of planning

Urban planning, housing, transportation planning architectural conservation, urban
design, landscape.
 Street Network Based Application
It is an addressed matched application, vehicle routing and scheduling: location and site
selection and disaster planning.
 Natural Resource Based Application
Management and environmental impact analysis of wild and scenic recreational
resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers, forests, and wildlife.
 View Shed Analysis
Hazardous or toxic factories siting and ground water modelling. Wild life habitat study
and migrational route planning.
 Land Parcel Based
Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment impact analysis, nature
quality management and maintenance etc.
 Facilities Management
Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning, tracking energy
use.

Some Interesting Links :

 Application of GIS to Fisheries Science

Recent Trends, Methodological Problems and Challenges by Maria Yolanda Malavear
 GIS and Public Health
Mapping the Future - An article by Thomas B. Richards, Charles M. Croner, Gerard
Rushton and Carol K. Brown from The Long Island Breast Cancer Study Project,
National Cancer Institute.
 Defining Hazard Areas using GIS
LMS Part1 - Vulnerability Assessment
 GIS and Archaeology
Application og GIS in the Field of Archeology - Executive Summary by Kelley Modlin and
Jamie Sharp
 Application of GIS
Application of GIS for Coastal Zone Management
 GIS and Multimodal Investment Analysis
The Application of GIS to Multimodal Investment Analysis by Center for Transportation
Research and Education
 Spatial Analysis of Crime using GIS-Based Data
Weighted Spatial Adaptive Filtering and Chaotic Cellular Forecasting with Applications to
Street Level Drug Markets
 GIS and Telecommunication
GIS - A Major Aid to Telecommunications Planning
 GIS and Land Cadastre
The use of GIS Technology in Digital Land Cadastre by Martin Puhar, Ales Suntar and
Edvard Mivsek
 Risky Business and GIS 
GIS helps Insurers make more informed risk-based decisions - An article by Keith Reid
in Business Geographics
 GIS for RIDGE Research 
An article by Dawn J. Wright published in RIDGE Events, 1994
 Environmental Projects using GIS 
North Carolina Supercomputing Center Environmental Programs
 Application of GIS
Interactive Application Of GIS during the Vision Wildfire at Point Reyes National
Seashore
 GIS and Electrical Distribution
Application of GIS Technology in Electrical Distribution Network Optimization -An article
by Davor Skrlec, Slavko Krajcar, Snjezana Blagajac
 GIS and Forest Fire
Application of GIS in Forest Fire Prevention - An article by Perestrello de Vasconcelos,
Maria J., Caetano, Mario S., Pereira, Joseé M.C.
 Application of GIS in various fields
Fundamentals of GIS 
Mapping Concepts, Features & Properties 
A map represents geographic features or other spatial phenomena by graphically conveying
information about locations and attributes. Locational information describes the position of
particular geographic features on the Earth's surface, as well as the spatial relationship between
features, such as the shortest path from a fire station to a library, the proximity of competing
businesses, and so on. Attribute information describes characteristics of the geographic features
represented, such as the feature type, its name or number and quantitative information such as
its area or length. 

Thus the basic objective of mapping is to provide

 descriptions of geographic phenomenon

 spatial and non spatial information
 map features like Point, Line, & Polygon.

Map Features 
Locational information is usually represented by points for features such as wells and telephone
pole locations, lines for features such as streams, pipelines and contour lines and areas for
features such as lakes, counties and census tracts. 

Point feature 
A point feature represents as single location. It defines a map object too small to show as a line
or area feature. A special symbol of label usually depicts a point location. 

Line feature 
A line feature is a set of connected, ordered coordinates representing the linear shape of a map
object that may be too narrow to display as an area such as a road or feature with no width such
as a contour line. 

Area feature 
An area feature is a closed figure whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area, such as a
state country soil type or lake. 

Map Characteristics 
In addition to feature locations and their attributes, the other technical characteristics that define
maps and their use includes:

 Map Scale
 Map Accuracy
 Map Extent and
  Data Base Extent

Scale 
To show a portion of the Earth's surface on a map, the scale must be sufficiently adjusted to
cover the objective. Map scale or the extent of reduction is expressed as a ratio. The unit on the
left indicates distance on the map and the number on the right indicates distance on the ground.
The following three statements show the same scale. 

1 inch = 2.000 feet => 1 inch = 24.000 inches => 1:24.000

The latter is known as a representative fraction (RF) because the amounts on either side of the
colon are equivalent: that is 1:24.000 means 1inch equals 24.000 inches or1 foot equals 24.000
feet or 1 meter equals 24.000 meters and so on. 

Map scale indicates how much the given area has been reduced. For the same size map,
features on a small-scale map (1:1,000,0000) will be smaller than those on a large-scale map
(1:1,200). 

A map with less detail is said to be of a smaller scale than one with more detail. Cartographers
often divide scales into three different categories. 

Small-scale maps have scales smaller than 1 : 1,000,000 and are used for maps of wide
areas where not much detail is required. 

Medium-scale maps have scales between 1 : 75,000 and 1 : 1,000,000. 

Large-scale maps have scales larger than 1 : 75,000. They are used in applications
where detailed map features are required.
So each scale represents a different tradeoff. With a small-scale map, you'll be able to show a
large area without much detail. On a large-scale map, you'll be able to show a lot of detail but not
for a large area. The small-scale map can show a large area because it reduces the area so
much that the large-scale map can only show a portion of one street, but in such detail that you
can see shapes of the houses. 

To convert this statement to a representative fraction, the units of measure on both the sides
being compared must be the same. For this example, both measurements will be in meters. 

To do this:

1. Convert 1.6 inches into meters 

1.6 inches x 0.0254 meters/inch = 0.04 meters

2. Let us suppose that 

0.04 units on the map = 10,000 units on the ground

Then, you can now state the scale as a representative fraction (RF): 0.04:10,000 

Though it is a valid statement of scale, most cartographers may find it clumsy. Traditionally, the
first number in the representative fraction is made equal to 1: 

0.04 / 0.04 = 1 units on the map = 10,000 / 0.04 units on the ground 
 1 unit on the map = 250,000 units on the ground

Scale in Digital Maps 

With digital maps, the traditional concept of scale in terms of distance does not apply because
digital maps do not remain fixed in size. They can be displayed or plotted at any possible
magnification. Yet we still speak of the scale of a digital map. 

In digital mapping, the term scale is used to indicate the scale of the materials from which the
map was made. For example, if a digital map is said to have a scale of 1:100,000, it was made
from a 1:100,000-scale paper map. 

However, a digital map's scale still allows you to make some educated guesses about its
contents because, generally, digital maps retain the same accuracy and characteristics as their
source maps. So it is still true that a large-scale digital map will usually be more accurate and
less general than a small-scale digital map. 

Because the display size of a computer-based map is not fixed, users are often tempted to blow
up maps to very large sizes. For example, a 1:100,000-scale map can easily be plotted at a size
of 1:24,000 or even 1:2,000-but it usually is not a good idea to do so. It encourages the user to
make measurements that the underlying data does not support. You cannot measure positions to
the nearest foot if your map is only accurate to the nearest mile. You will end up looking for
information that does not exist. 
Map Resolution
Map resolution refers to how accurately the location and shape of map features can be depicted
for a given map scale. Scale affects resolution. In a larger-scale map, the resolution of features
more closely matches real-world features because the extent of reduction from ground to map is
less. As map scale decrease, the map resolution diminishes because features must be smoothed
and simplified, or not shown at all. 

Map Accuracy 
Many factors besides resolution, influence how accurately features can be depicted, including the
quality of source data, the map scale, your drafting skill and the width of lines drawn on the
ground. A fine drafting pen will draw line's 1/100 of an inch wide. Such a line represents a
corridor on the ground, which is almost 53 feet wide. 

In addition to this, human drafting errors will occur and can be compounded by the quality of your
source maps and materials. A map accurate for one purpose is often inaccurate for others since
accuracy is determined by the needs of the project as much as it is by the map itself. 

Some measurements of a map's accuracy are discussed below.

 Absolute accuracy of a map refers to the relationship between a geographic position on

a map (a street corner, for instance) and its real-world position measured on the surface
of the earth. Absolute accuracy is primarily important for complex data requirements
such as those for surveying and engineering-based applications.
 Relative accuracy refers to the displacement between two points on a map (both
distance and angle), compared to the displacement of those same points in the real
world. Relative accuracy is often more important and easier to obtain than absolute
accuracy because users rarely need to know absolute positions. More often, they need
to find a position relative to some known landmark, which is what relative accuracy
provides. Users with simple data requirements generally need only relative accuracy.
 Attribute accuracy refers to the precision of the attribute database linked to the map's
features. For example, if the map shows road classifications, are they correct? If it shows
 street addresses, how accurate are they? Attribute accuracy is most important to users
with complex data requirements.
 A map's Currency refers to how up-to-date it is. Currency is usually expressed in terms
of a revision date, but this information is not always easy to find.
 A map is Complete if it includes all the features a user would expect it to contain. For
example, does a street map contain all the streets? Completeness and currency usually
are related because a map becomes less complete as it gets older.

The most important issue to remember about map accuracy is that the more accurate the map,
the more it costs in time and money to develop. For example, digital maps with coordinate
accuracy of about 100 feet can be purchased inexpensively. If 1-foot accuracy is required, a
custom survey is often the only way to get it, which drives up data-acquisition costs by many
orders of magnitude and can significantly delay project implementation - by months or even
years. 

Therefore, too much accuracy can be as detrimental to the success of a GIS project as too little.
Rather than focusing on the project's benefits, a sponsoring organization may focus on the costs
that result from a level of accuracy not justified for the project. Project support inevitably erodes
when its original objectives are forgotten in a flurry of cost analyses. 

A far better strategy is to start the project with whatever data is readily available and sufficient to
support initial objectives. Once the GIS is up and running, producing useful results, project scope
can be expanded. The quality of its data can be improved as required. 

Even though no maps are entirely accurate, they are still useful for decision-making and analysis.
How ever, it is important to consider map accuracy to ensure that your data is not used
inappropriately. 

Any number of factors can cause error. Note these sources can have at cumulative effect. 

E = f(f) + f(1) + f(e) + f(d) + f(a) + f(m) + f(rms) + f(mp) + u 

Where, 

f = flattening the round Earth onto a two - dimensional surface (transformation from
spherical to planar geometry) 
I = accurately measuring location on Earth (correct project and datum information) 
c = cartographic interpretation (correct interpretation of features) 
d = drafting error (accuracy in tracing of features and width of drafting pen) 
a = analog to digital conversion (digitizing board calibration) 
m = media stability (warping and stretching, folding. Wrinkling of map) 
p = digitizing processor error (accuracy of cursor placement) 
rms = Root Mean Square (registration accuracy of ties) 
mp = machine precision (coordinate rounding by computer in storing and transforming)
u = additional unexplained source error 

Map Extent 
The aerial extent of map is the area on the Earth's surface represented on the map. It is the limit
of the area covered, usually defined by rectangle just large enough to include all mapped
features. The size of the study area depends on the map scale. The smaller the scale the larger
the area covered. 

Database Extent 
A critical first step in building a geographic database is defining its extent. The aerial extent of a
database is the limit of the area of interest for your GIS project. This usually includes the areas
directly affected by your organization's responsibility (such as assigned administrative units) as
well as surrounding areas that either influence or are influenced by relevant activities in the
administrative area. 

Data Automation 
Map features are logically organized into a set of layers or themes of information. A base map
can be organized into layers such as streams, soils, wells or boundaries. Map data, regardless of
how a spatial database will be applied, is collected, automated and updated as series of adjacent
map sheets or aerial photograph. Here each sheet is mounted on the digitizer and digitized, one
sheet at a time. In order to be able to combine these smaller sheets into larger units or study
areas, the co-ordinates of coverage must be transformed into a single common co-ordinate
system. Once in a common co-ordinate system, attributes are associated with features. Then as
needed map sheets for layer are edge matched and joined into a single coverage for your study
area. 

Types of Information in a Digital Map 

Any digital map is capable of storing much more information than a paper map of the same area,
but it's generally not clear at first glance just what sort of information the map includes. For
example, more information is usually available in a digital map than what you see on-screen. And
evaluating a given data set simply by looking at the screen can be difficult: What part of the
image is contained in the data and what part is created by the GIS program's interpretation of the
data? You must understand the types of data in your map so you can use it appropriately. 

Three general types of information can be included in digital maps:

 Geographic information, which provides the position and shapes of specific geographic
features.
 Attribute information, which provides additional non-graphic information about each
feature.
 Display information, which describes how the features will appear on the screen.

Some digital maps do not contain all three types of information. For example, raster maps usually
do not include attribute information, and many vector data sources do not include display
information. 

Geographic Information 
The geographic information in a digital map provides the position and shape of each map
feature. For example, a road map's geographic information is the location of each road on the
map. 

In a vector map, a feature's position is normally expressed as sets of X, Y pairs or X, Y, Z triples,

using the coordinate system defined for the map (see the discussion of coordinate systems,
below). Most vector geographic information systems support three fundamental geometric
objects:

 Point: A single pair of coordinates.

 Line: Two or more points in a specific sequence.
 Polygon: An area enclosed by a line.

Some systems also support more complex entities, such as regions, circles, ellipses, arcs, and
curves. 
Attribute Information 
Attribute data describes specific map features but is not inherently graphic. For example, an
attribute associated with a road might be its name or the date it was last paved. Attributes are
often stored in database files kept separately from the graphic portion of the map. Attributes
pertain only to vector maps; they are seldom associated with raster images. 

GIS software packages maintain internal links tying each graphical map entity to its attribute
information. The nature of these links varies widely across systems. In some, the link is implicit,
and the user has no control over it. Other systems have explicit links that the user can modify.
Links in these systems take the form of database keys. Each map feature has a key value stored
with it; the key identifies the specific database record that contains the feature's attribute
information.

Display Information 
The display information in a digital-map data set describes how the map is to be displayed or
plotted. Common display information includes feature colours, line widths and line types (solid,
dashed, dotted, single, or double); how the names of roads and other features are shown on the
map; and whether or not lakes, parks, or other area features are colour coded. 

However, many users do not consider the quality of display information when they evaluate a
data set. Yet map display strongly affects the information you and your audience can obtain from
the map - no matter how simple or complex the project. A technically flawless, but unattractive or
hard-to-read map will not achieve the goal of conveying information easily to the user. 

Cartographic Appeal 
Clearly, how a map looks - especially if it is being used in a presentation - determines its
effectiveness. Appropriate color choices, linetypes, and so on add the professional look you want
and make the map easier to interpret. Since display information often is not included in the
source data set or is filtered out by conversion software, you may need to add it yourself or
purchase the map from a vendor who does it for you. Map display information should convey the
meaning of its underlying attribute data. 

Various enhancements will increase a map's usefulness and cartographic appeal.

 Feature Colors and Linetypes. Colors and line representations should be chosen to
make the map's meaning clear. For example, using double-line roads can be quite
helpful. Many GIS data sets only include road centerline information. Actual road width is
not given. So maps with centerlines only can look like spider webs, which is visually
unappealing. Some software and conversion systems can draw roads as double lines,
with distance between lines varying according to road type. Centerlines can be included,
if necessary. Double-line maps are appropriate for detailed studies of small areas, such
as subdivisions, or maps where right-of-way information is important.
 Naming Roads. Naming, or labeling, roads are important for proper map interpretation.
This information should be legible, positioned in the center of the road or offset from the
center, and drawn at intervals suited to the scale of the final map or its purpose.
 Landmark Symbols. A good set of symbols should be used to indicate landmarks, such
as hospitals, schools, churches, and cemeteries. The symbols should be sized
appropriately in relation to map scale.
 Polygon Fills. Polygon features, such as lakes or parks, should be filled with an
appropriate color or hatch pattern.
 Zoom Layer Control. If the GIS software platform permits, map layers should be set up
so that detailed, high-density information only appears when the user zooms in for a
close-up of part of the map. For example, when a large area is displayed, only the major
 roads should appear; for a smaller area, both major and minor roads should appear.

Layering 
Most GIS software has a system of layers, which can be used to divide a large map into
manageable pieces. For example, all roads could be on one layer and all hydrographic features
on another. Major layers can be further classified into sub-layers, such as different types of roads
- highways, city streets, and so on. Layer names are particularly important in CAD-based
mapping and GIS programs, which have excellent tools for handling them. 

Some digital maps are layered according to the numeric feature-classification codes found in
their source data sets. For example, a major road might be on the 170-201 layer. However, this
type of system is not very useful. A well-thought-out layering scheme can make any data set
much easier to use because it allows the user to control the features with which you want to
work. A good layering standard has layer names that are mnemonic (suggest their meanings)
and hierarchical (have a structured classification scheme that makes it easy to choose general or
specific classes). 

For example, a map could have its roads on a layer called RD, its railroads on a layer called RR,
its road bridges on a layer called RD-BRIDGE, and its railroad bridges on a layer called RR-
BRIDGE. This scheme is mnemonic because it is easy to tell a layer's contents from its name,
and it's hierarchical because the user can easily select all the roads, railroads, bridges, road
bridges, or railroad bridges. 

Maps and Map Analysis 

Automated Mapping 
Computer Aided Mapping has its limitations. Goal of GIS is not only to prepare a good map but
also perform map analysis. Maps are the main source of data for GIS. GIS, though an accurate
mapping tool, requires error management. 

MAP is a representation on a medium of a selected material or abstract material in relation to the

surface of the earth (defined by Cartographic association). Maps originated from mathematics.
The term Map is often used in mathematics to convey the motion of transferring the information
from one form to another just as Cartographers transfer information from the surface of the earth
to a sheet of paper. Map is used in a loose fashion to refer to any manual display of information
particularly if it is abstract, generalised or schematic. 

Process involved in the production of Maps:

 Selection of few features of the real world.

 Classification of selected features in to groups eg. Railway in to different lines.
Classification depends upon the purpose.
 Simplification of jaggered lines like the coast lines.
 Exaggeration of features.
 Symbolisation to represent different classes of features.

Drawing Digitization of Maps. 

Maps can be broadly classified in to two groups:

1. Topographical maps
2. Thematic maps
Topographical Maps 
It is a reference map showing the outline of selected man-made and natural features of the earth.
It often acts as a frame for other features Topography refers to the shape of surface represented
by contours or shading. It also shows lands, railway and other prominent features. 

Thematic maps 
Thematic maps are an important source of GIS information. These are tools to communicate
geographical concepts such as Density of population, Climate, movement of goods and people,
land use etc. It has many classifications. 

Geographical Data Sets 

Geographic Data Types

Although the two terms, data and information, are often used indiscriminately, they both have a
specific meaning. Data can be described as different observations, which are collected and
stored. Information is that data, which is useful in answering queries or solving a problem.
Digitizing a large number of maps provides a large amount of data after hours of painstaking
works, but the data can only render useful information if it is used in analysis.

Spatial and Non-spatial data 

Geographic data are organised in a geographic database. This database can be considered as a
collection of spatially referenced data that acts as a model of reality. There are two important
components of this geographic database: its geographic position and its attributes or properties.
In other words, spatial data (where is it?) and attribute data (what is it?)

Attribute Data 
The attributes refer to the properties of spatial entities. They are often referred to as non-spatial
data since they do not in themselves represent location information. 

District Name Area Population

Noida 395 sq. Km. 6,75,341
Ghaziabad 385 sq. Km. 2,57,086
Mirzapur 119 sq. Km. 1,72,952

Spatial data 
Geographic position refers to the fact that each feature has a location that must be specified in a
unique way. To specify the position in an absolute way a coordinate system is used. For small
areas, the simplest coordinate system is the regular square grid. For larger areas, certain
approved cartographic projections are commonly used. Internationally there are many different
coordinate systems in use.

Geographic object can be shown by FOUR type of representation viz., points, lines, areas, and
continuous surfaces.

Point Data 
Points are the simplest type of spatial data. They are-zero dimensional objects with only a
position in space but no length.

Line Data 
Lines (also termed segments or arcs) are one-dimensional spatial objects. Besides having a
position in space, they also have a length.

Area Data 
Areas (also termed polygons) are two-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in
space and a length but also a width (in other words they have an area).

Continuous Surface 
Continuous surfaces are three-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in space, a
length and a width, but also a depth or height (in other words they have a volume). These spatial
objects have not been discussed further because most GIS do not include real volumetric spatial
data.

Geographic Data -- Linkages and Matching 

Linkages 
A GIS typically links different sets. Suppose you want to know the mortality rate to cancer among
children under 10 years of age in each country. If you have one file that contains the number of
children in this age group, and another that contains the mortality rate from cancer, you must first
combine or link the two data files. Once this is done, you can divide one figure by the other to
obtain the desired answer. 
Exact Matching
Exact matching occurs when you have information in one computer file about many geographic
features (e.g., towns) and additional information in another file about the same set of features.
The operation to bring them together is easily achieved by using a key common to both files -- in
this case, the town name. Thus, the record in each file with the same town name is extracted,
and the two are joined and stored in another file.
Name Populaiton
Name Avg. housing Cost
A 4038
A 30,500
B 7030
B 22,000
C 10777
C 100,000
D 5798
D 24,000
E 5606
E 24,000

Name Population Avg. Housing Cost

A 4038 30,500

B 7030 22,000

C 10777 100,100

D 5798 24,000

E 5606 24,000

Hierarchical Matching 
Some types of information, however, are collected in more detail and less frequently than other
types of information. For example, financial and unemployment data covering a large area are
collected quite frequently. On the other hand, population data are collected in small areas but at
less frequent intervals. If the smaller areas nest (i.e., fit exactly) within the larger ones, then the
way to make the data match of the same area is to use hierarchical matching -- add the data for
the small areas together until the grouped areas match the bigger ones and then match them
exactly.

The hierarchical structure illustrated in the chart shows that this city is composed of several
tracts. To obtain meaningful values for the city, the tract values must be added together. 
Tract Town Population  

101 P 60,000

102 Q 45,000

103 R 35,000

104 S 36,000
 105 T 57,000

106 Nakkhu 25,000

107 Kupondole 58,000

Tract 101  
  Tract 102
Tract 103  
    Tract 104
Tract 105  
  Tract 107
Tract 106

Fuzzy Matching 
On many occasions, the boundaries of the smaller areas do not match those of the larger ones.
This occurs often while dealing with environmental data. For example, crop boundaries, usually
defined by field edges, rarely match the boundaries between the soil types. If you want to
determine the most productive soil for a particular crop, you need to overlay the two sets and
compute crop productivity for each and every soil type. In principle, this is like laying one map
over another and noting the combinations of soil and productivity.

A GIS can carry out all these operations because it uses geography, as a common key between
the data sets. Information is linked only if it relates to the same geographical area.

Why is data linkage so important? Consider a situation where you have two data sets for a given
area, such as yearly income by county and average cost of housing for the same area. Each
data might be analysed and/or mapped individually. Alternatively, they may be combined. With
two data sets, only one valid combination exists. Even if your data sets may be meaningful for a
single query you will still be able to answer many more questions than if the data sets were kept
separate. By bringing them together, you add value to the database. To do this, you need GIS. 

Figure 2
Principal Functions of GIS 

Data Capture

Data used in GIS often come from many types, and are stored in different ways. A GIS provides
tools and a method for the integration of different data into a format to be compared and
analysed. Data sources are mainly obtained from manual digitization and scanning of aerial
photographs, paper maps, and existing digital data sets. Remote-sensing satellite imagery and
GPS are promising data input sources for GIS.

Database Management and Update

After data are collected and integrated, the GIS must provide facilities, which can store and
maintain data. Effective data management has many definitions but should include all of the
following aspects: data security, data integrity, data storage and retrieval, and data maintenance
abilities.

Geographic Analysis

Data integration and conversion are only a part of the input phase of GIS. What is required next
is the ability to interpret and to analyze the collected information quantitatively and qualitatively.
For example, satellite image can assist an agricultural scientist to project crop yield per hectare
for a particular region. For the same region, the scientist also has the rainfall data for the past six
months collected through weather station observations. The scientists also have a map of the
soils for the region which shows fertility and suitability for agriculture. These point data can be
interpolated and what you get is a thematic map showing isohyets or contour lines of rainfall.

Presenting Results

One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of different ways in which the
information can be presented once it has been processed by GIS. Traditional methods of
tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by maps and three dimensional images.
Visual communication is one of the most fascinating aspects of GIS technology and is available
in a diverse range of output options.

Data Capture an Introduction

The functionality of GIS relies on the quality of data available, which, in most developing
countries, is either redundant or inaccurate. Although GIS are being used widely, effective and
efficient means of data collection have yet to be systematically established. The true value of GIS
can only be realized if the proper tools to collect spatial data and integrate them with attribute
data are available.

Manual Digitization

Manual Digitizing still is the most common method for entering maps into GIS. The map to be
digitized is affixed to a digitizing table, and a pointing device (called the digitizing cursor or
mouse) is used to trace the features of the map. These features can be boundary lines between
mapping units, other linear features (rivers, roads, etc.) or point features (sampling points, rainfall
stations, etc.) The digitizing table electronically encodes the position of the cursor with the
precision of a fraction of a millimeter. The most common digitizing table uses a fine grid of wires,
embedded in the table. The vertical wires will record the Y-coordinates, and the horizontal ones,
the X-coordinates.

The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires (called digitizing
resolution) and the settings of the digitizing software. A digitizing table is normally a rectangular
area in the middle, separated from the outer boundary of the table by a small rim. Outside of this
so-called active area of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The lower left corner of
the active area will have the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0. Therefore, make sure that the (part of
the) map that you want to digitize is always fixed within the active area.

Scanning System

The second method of obtaining vector data is with the use of scanners. Scanning (or scan
digitizing) provides a quicker means of data entry than manual digitizing. In scanning, a digital
image of the map is produced by moving an electronic detector across the map surface. The
output of a scanner is a digital raster image, consisting of a large number of individual cells
ordered in rows and columns. For the Conversion to vector format, two types of raster image can
be used. 

 In the case of Chloropleth maps or thematic maps, such as geological maps, the individual
mapping units can be separated by the scanner according to their different colours or grey tones.
The resulting images will be in colours or grey tone images.

 In the case of scanned line maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a black-and-white
image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the white areas in between lines will obtain
a value of 0 in the scanned image. These images, with only two possibilities (1 or 0) are also
called binary images.

The raster image is processed by a computer to improve the image quality and is then edited and
checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector format by special computer programmes,
which are different for colour/grey tone images and binary images.

Scanning works best with maps that are very clean, simple, relate to one feature only, and do not
contain extraneous information, such as text or graphic symbols. For example, a contour map
should only contain the contour line, without height indication, drainage network, or infrastructure.
In most cases, such maps will not be available, and should be drawn especially for the purpose
of scanning. Scanning and conversion to vector is therefore, only beneficial in large
organizations, where a large number of complex maps are entered. In most cases, however,
manual digitizing will be the only useful method for entering spatial data in vector format. 
 Figure 3

Data Conversion

While manipulating and analyzing data, the same format should be used for all data. This
Scanning System implies that, when different layers are to be used simultaneously, they should
all be in vector or all in raster format. Usually the conversion is from vector to raster, because the
biggest part of the analysis is done in the raster domain. Vector data are transformed to raster
data by overlaying a grid with a user-defined cell size.

Sometimes the data in the raster format are converted into vector format. This is the case
especially if one wants to achieve data reduction because the data storage needed for raster
data is much larger than for vector data.

A digital data file with spatial and attribute data might already exist in some way or another.
There might be a national database or specific databases from ministries, projects, or
companies. In some cases a conversion is necessary before these data can be downloaded into
the desired database.

The commonly used attribute databases are dBase and Oracle. Sometimes spreadsheet
programmes like Lotus, Quattro, or Excel are used, although these cannot be regarded as real
database softwares.
Remote-sensing images are digital datasets recorded by satellite operating agencies and stored
in their own image database. They usually have to be converted into the format of the spatial
(raster) database before they can be downloaded.

Spatial Data Management

Geo-Relational Data Model 

All spatial data files will be geo-referenced. Geo-referencing refers to the location of a layer or
coverage in space defined by the coordinate referencing system. The geo relational approach
involves abstracting geographic information into a series of independent layers or coverages,
each representing a selected set of closely associated geographic features (e.g., roads, land
use, river, settlement, etc). Each layer has the theme of a geographic feature and the database is
organized in the thematic layers.

With this approach users can combine simple feature sets representing complex relationships in
the real world. This approach borrows heavily on the concepts of relational DBMS, and it is
typically closely integrated with such systems. This is fundamental to database organization in
GIS.

Topological Data Structure. 

Topology is the spatial relationship between connecting and adjacent coverage features (e.g.,
arc, nodes, polygons, and points). For instance, the topology of an arc includes from and to
nodes (beginning of the arc and ending of the arc representing direction) and its left and right
polygon. Topological relationships are built from simple elements into complex elements: points
(simplest elements), arcs (sets of connected points), and areas (sets of connected arcs).
Topological data structure, in fact, adds intelligence to the GIS database.

Attribute Data Management 

All Data within a GIS (spatial data as well as attribute data) are stored within databases. A
database is a collection of information about things and their relationships to each other. For
example, you can have an engineering geological database, containing information about soil
and rock types, field observations and measurements, and laboratory results. This is interesting
data, but not very useful if the laboratory data, for example, cannot be related to soil and rock
types.

The objective of collecting and maintaining information in a database is to relate facts and
situations that were previously separate.

The principle characteristics of a DBMS are: -

Centralized control over the database is possible, allowing for better quality management and
operator-defined access to parts of the database;

Data can be shared effectively by different applications;

The access to the data is much easier, due to the use of a user-interface and the user-views
(especially designed formula for entering and consulting the database);

Data redundancy (storage of the same data in more than one place in the database) can be
avoided as much as possible; redundancy or unnecessary duplication of data are an annoyance,
since this makes updating the database much more difficult; one can easily overlook changing
redundant information whenever it occurs; and
The creation of new applications is much easier with DBMS.

The disadvantages relate to the higher cost of purchasing the software, the increased complexity
of management, and the higher risk, as data are centrally managed.

Relational Database -- Concepts & Model 

The relational data model is conceived as a series of tables, with no hierarchy nor any predefined
relations. The relation between the various tables should be made by the user. This is done by
identifying a common field in two tables, which is assigned as the flexibility than in the other two
data models. However, accessing the database is slower than with the other two models. Due to
its greater flexibility, the relational data model is used by nearly all GIS systems

Choosing geographic data 

The main purpose of purchasing a geographic information system (GIS)* is to produce results for
your organization. Choosing the right GIS/mapping data will help you produce those results
effectively.

 The role of base-map data in your GIS,

 The common characteristics of geographic data,
 The commonly available data sources
 Guidelines for evaluating the suitability of any data set for your project.

The world of GIS data is complex, by choosing the right data set, you can save significant
amounts of money and, even more importantly, quickly begin your GIS project.

Data: The Core of Your Mapping / GIS Project 

When most people begin a GIS project, their immediate concern is with purchasing computer
hardware and software. They enter into lengthy discussions with vendors about the merits of
various components and carefully budget for acquisitions. Yet they often give little thought to the
core of the system, the data that goes inside it. They fail to recognize that the choice of an initial
data set has a tremendous influence on the ultimate success of their GIS project.

Data, the core of any GIS project, must be accurate - but accuracy is not enough. Having the
appropriate level of accuracy is vital. Since an increase in data accuracy increases acquisition
and maintenance costs, data that is too detailed for your needs can hurt a project just as surely
as inaccurate data can. All any GIS project needs is data accurate enough to accomplish its
objectives and no more. For example, you would not purchase an engineering workstation to run
a simple word-processing application. Similarly, you would not need third-order survey accuracy
for a GIS-based population study whose smallest unit of measurement is a county. Purchasing
such data would be too costly and inappropriate for the project at hand. Even more critically,
collecting overly complex data could be so time-consuming that the GIS project might lose
support within the organization.

Even so, many people argue that, since GIS data can far outlast the hardware and software on
which it runs, no expense should be spared in its creation. Perfection, however, is relative.
Projects and data requirements evolve. Rather than overinvest in data, invest reasonably in a
well-documented, well-understood data foundation that meets today's needs and provides a path
for future enhancements. This approach is a key to successful GIS project implementation.

Are Your Data Needs Simple or Complex? 

Before you start your project, take some time to consider your objectives and your GIS data
needs. Ask yourself, "Are my data needs complex or simple?"

*Italicized words can be found in the Glossary at the end of this document except for words used
for emphasis or words italicized for reasons of copyediting convention or layout.
If you just need a map as a backdrop for other information, your data requirements are simple.
You are building a map for your specific project, and you are primarily interested in displaying the
necessary information, not in the map itself. You do not need highly accurate measurements of
distances or areas or to combine maps from different sources. Nor do you want to edit or add to
the map's basic geographic information.

An example of simple data requirements is a map for a newspaper story that shows the location
of a fire. Good presentation is important; absolute accuracy is not.

If you have simple data needs, read this paper to get the overall picture of what GIS data is and
how it fits into your project. A project with simple data requirements can be started with
inexpensive maps. Your primary interests will be quality graphic- display characteristics and
finding maps that are easy to use with your software. You need not be as concerned with
technical mapping issues. However, basic knowledge of concepts such as coordinate systems,
absolute accuracy, and file formats will help you understand your choices and help you make
informed decisions when it's time to add to your system.

What issues suggest more complex GIS data needs?

 Building a GIS to be used by many people over a long period of time.

 Storing and maintaining database information about geographic features.
 Making accurate engineering measurements from the map.
 Editing or adding to the map.
 Combining a variety of information from different sources.

An example of a system requiring complex data would be a GIS built to manage infrastructure for
an electric utility.

If your data requirements are complex, you ought to pay particular attention to the sections of this
paper that discuss data accuracy, coordinate systems, layering, file formats, and the issues
involved in combining data from different sources.

Also keep in mind that projects evolve, and simple data needs expand into complex ones as your
project moves beyond its original objectives. If you understand the basics of your data set, you
will make better decisions as your project grows.

Basics of Digital Mapping 

Vector vs. Raster Maps 

The most fundamental concept to grasp about any type of graphic data is making the distinction
between vector data and raster data. These two data types are as different as night and day, yet
they can look the same. For example, a question that commonly comes up is "How can I convert
my TIFF files into DXF files?" The answer is "With difficulty," because TIFF is a raster data
format and DXF™ (data interchange file) is a vector format. And converting from raster to vector
is not simple. Raster maps are best suited to some applications while vector maps are suited to
others. 
 Figure 4

Raster data represents a graphic object as a pattern of dots, whereas vector data represents the
object as a set of lines drawn between specific points. Consider a line drawn diagonally on a
piece of paper. A raster file would represent this image by subdividing the paper into a matrix of
small rectangles-similar to a sheet of graph paper-called cells (figure 1). Each cell is assigned a
position in the data file and given a value based on the color at that position. White cells could be
given the value 0; black cells, the value 1; grays would fall in-between. This data representation
allows the user to easily reconstruct or visualize the original image. 

Figure 5

A vector representation of the same diagonal line would record the position of the line by simply
recording the coordinates of its starting and ending points. Each point would be expressed as
two or three numbers (depending on whether the representation was 2D or 3D, often referred to
as X,Y or X,Y,Z coordinates (figure 2). The first number, X, is the distance between the point and
the left side of the paper; Y, the distance between the point and the bottom of the paper; Z, the
point's elevation above or below the paper. The vector is formed by joining the measured points. 

Some basic properties of raster and vector data are outlined below.

 Each entity in a vector file appears as an individual data object. It is easy to record
information about an object or to compute characteristics such as its exact length or
surface area. It is much harder to derive this kind of information from a raster file
because raster files contain little (and sometimes no) geometric information.
 Some applications can be handled much more easily with raster techniques than with
vector techniques. Raster works best for surface modeling and for applications where
individual features are not important. For example, a raster surface model can be very
useful for performing cut-and-fill analyses for road-building applications, but it doesn't tell
you much about the characteristics of the road itself. Terrain elevations can be recorded
 in a raster format and used to construct digital elevation models (DEMs) (figure 3). Some
land-use information comes in raster format.

Figure 6

 Raster files are often larger than vector files. The raster representation of the line in the
example above required a data value for each cell on the page, whereas the vector
representation only required the positions of two points.

The size of the cells in a raster file is an important factor. Smaller cells improve image quality
because they increase detail. As cell size increases, image definition decreases or blurs. In the
example, the position of the line's edge is defined most clearly if the cells are very small.
However, there is a trade-off: Dividing the cell size in half increases file size by a factor of four. 

Cell size in a raster file is referred to as resolution. For a given resolution value, the raster cost
does not increase with image complexity. That is, any scanner can quickly make a raster file. It
takes no more effort to scan a map of a dense urban area than to scan a sparse rural one. On
the other hand, a vector file requires careful measuring and recording of each point, so an urban
map will be much more time-consuming to draw than a rural map. The process of making vector
maps is not easily automated, and cost increases with map complexity. 

Because raster data is often more repetitive and predictable, it can be compressed more easily
than vector data. Many raster formats, such as TIFF, have compression options that drastically
reduce image sizes, depending upon image complexity and variability.

Raster files are most often used:

 For digital representations of aerial photographs, satellite images, scanned paper maps,
and other applications with very detailed images.
 When costs need to be kept down.
 When the map does not require analysis of individual map features.
 When "backdrop" maps are required.

In contrast, vector maps are appropriate for:

 Highly precise applications.

 When file sizes are important.
 When individual map features require analysis.
  When descriptive information must be stored.

Raster and vector maps can also be combined visually. For example, a vector street map could
be overlaid on a raster aerial photograph. The vector map would provide discrete information
about individual street segments, the raster image, a backdrop of the surrounding environment.

Digital Map Formats- How Data Is Stored 

The term file format refers to the logical structure used to store information in a GIS file. File
formats are important in part because not every GIS software package supports all formats. If
you want to use a data set, but it isn't available in a format that your GIS supports, you will have
to find a way to transform it, find another data set, or find another GIS.

Almost every GIS has its own internal file format. These formats are designed for optimal use
inside the software and are often proprietary. They are not designed for use outside their native
systems. Most systems also support transfer file formats. Transfer formats are designed to bring
data in and out of the GIS software, so they are usually standardized and well documented.

If your data needs are simple, your main concern will be with the internal format that your GIS
software supports. If you have complex data needs, you will want to learn about a wider range of
transfer formats, especially if you want to mix data from different sources. Transfer formats will
be required to import some data sets into your software.

Vector Formats 
Many GIS applications are based on vector technology, so vector formats are the most common.
They are also the most complex because there are many ways to store coordinates, attributes,
attribute linkages, database structures, and display information. Some of the most common
formats are briefly described below 

Common Vector File Formats

Software Internal or
Format Name Developer Comments
Platform Transfer
Arc Export ARC/INFO* Transfer Environmental Transfers data
Systems Research across ARC/INFO*
 Institute, Inc. (ESRI) platforms.
ARC/INFO* Coverages ARC/INFO* Internal ESRI
AutoCAD Drawing Files
AutoCAD* Internal Autodesk
(DWG)
Autodesk Data Widely used
Interchange File Many Transfer Autodesk graphics transfer
(DXF™) standard.
United States
Digital Line graphs Used to publish
Many Transfer Geological Survey
(DLG) USGS digital maps.
(USGS)
Hewlett-Packard
Used to control HP
Graphic Language Many Internal Hewlett-Packard
plotters.
(HPGL)
MapInfo Data Transfer
MapInfo* Transfer MapInfo Corp.
Files (MIF/MID)
MapInfo Map Files MapInfo* Internal MapInfo Corp.
MicroStation Design
MicroStation* Internal Bentley Systems, Inc.
Files (DGN)
New US standard
Spatial Data Transfer Many (in the
Transfer US Government for vector and raster
System (SDTS) future)
geographic data.
Topologically Integrated
Used to publish US
Geographic Encoding
Many Transfer US Census Bureau Census Bureau
and Referencing
maps.
(TIGER)
Military Used to publish
Vector Product Format US Defense Mapping
mapping Both Digital Chart of the
(VPF) Agency
systems World.

Raster Formats 
Raster files generally are used to store image information, such as scanned paper maps or aerial
photographs. They are also used for data captured by satellite and other airborne imaging
systems. Images from these systems are often referred to as remote-sensing data. Unlike other
raster files, which express resolution in terms of cell size and dots per inch (dpi), resolution in
remotely sensed images is expressed in meters, which indicates the size of the ground area
covered by each cell.

Some common raster formats are described below

Software Internal or
Format Name Developer Comments
Platform Transfer
Arc Digitized Military
US Defense
Raster Graphics mapping Both
Mapping Agency
(ADRG) systems
Band Interleaved Common remote-
by Line (BIL)
Man Both
sensing standard.
 
Band Interleaved Common remote-
Many Both
by Pixel (BIP) sensing standard.
Band Sequential Common remote-
Many Both
(BSQ) sensing standard.
United States
Digital Elevation USGS standard format digital
Many Transfer Geological Survey
Model for (DEM) terrain models.
(USGS)
PC Paintbrush
PC Paintbrush Both Zsoft Widely used raster format.
Exchange (PCX)
New US standard for both
Spatial Data
Many (in the US Federal raster and vector geographic
Transfer Transfer
future) Government data; raster version still under
Standard (SDTS)
development.
Tagged Image
File Format PageMaker Both Aldus Widely used raster format.
(TIFF)

An Example of Raster and Vector Integration 

Vectors & Raster Data Models - Merits & Demerits. 

RASTER MODEL VECTOR MODEL

Advantages Advantages

 Simple data structure  Compact data structure

 Easy and efficient overlaying  Efficient for network analysis
 Compatible with RS imagery  Efficient projection transformation
 High spatial variability is efficiently  Accurate map output.
represented
 Simple for own programming Disadvantages
 Same grid cells for several attributes 
 Complex data structure
Disadvantages  Difficult overlay operations
 High spatial variability is inefficiently
 Inefficient use of computer storage represented
 Errors in perimeter, and shape  Not compatible with RS imagery
 Difficult network analysis
 Inefficient projection transformations
 Loss of information when using large
cells Less accurate (although
interactive) maps
Hybrid System 
It is an integration of the best of Vector and Raster Models. The GIS technology is fast moving
towards Hybrid model GIS. 

The Integration of Vector and Raster System Hybird System

Figure 8: The Integration of Vector and Raster System Hybird System 

Analysis of Geographic Data 
ANALYSIS - What? & Why? 
The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish the GIS system
from other information system are its spatial analysis functions. Although the data input is, in
general, the most time consuming part, it is for data analysis that GIS is used. The analysis
functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the
real world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of real-world processes by developing and
applying models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographic data and thus
make new information available. Results of geographic analysis can be communicated with the
help of maps, or both. 

The organization of database into map layers is not simply for reasons of organizational clarity,
rather it is to provide rapid access to data elements required for geographic analysis. The
objective of geographic analysis is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the
requirements or objectives of decision-makers at all levels in terms of detail. An important use of
the analysis is the possibility of predicting events in the another location or at another point in
time. 

ANALYSIS - How? 
Before commencing geographic analysis, one needs to assess the problem and establish an
objective. The analysis requires step-by-step procedures to arrive at the conclusions. 

The range of geographical analysis procedures can be subdivided into the following categories.

 Database Query.
 Overlay.
 Proximity analysis.
 Network analysis.
 Digital Terrain Model.
 Statistical and Tabular Analysis.

Spatial Analysis 
It helps us to:

 Identify trends on the data.

 Create new relationships from the data.
 View complex relationships between data sets.
 Make better decisions.

Geographic Analysis 
Analysis of problems with some Geographic Aspects.

 Alternatives are geographic locations or areas.

 Decisions would affect locations or areas.
 Geographic relationships are important in decision-making or modelling.

Some examples of its application:

 Nearest Neighbour.
 Network distances.
  Planar distances.

Spatial Analysis - An Application

Image 1

Where should we build a road from a point A to point B? 

How do we minimise the impacts of building this road? 

Relationship of Modelling to Analysis

 Decision Models search through potential alternatives to arrive at a recommendation.

 Decision support models process raw data into forms that are directly relevant to
decision making.
 Data characterisation models are used to develop a better understanding of a system to
help characterise a problem or potential solutions.

Difficulties of Geographic Analysis

 Plenty of data.
 Spatial relationships are important but difficult to measure.
 Inherent uncertainty due to scale.
 any data sources.
 Difficult to make data sources compatible.
 Difficult mathematics.
 Quantity vs. Quality Questions.
  Multiple objectives.
 GIS can address some (but not all) of these difficulties.

Network Analysis 

Network models are based on interconnecting logical components, of which the most important
are:

1. "Nodes" define start, end, and intersections

2. "Chains" are line features joining nodes
3. "Links" join together points making up a chain.

This network can be analyzed using GIS.A simple and most apparent network analysis
applications are:

 Street network analysis,

 Traffic flow modelling,
 Telephone cable networking,
 Pipelines etc.

The other obvious applications would be service centre locations based on travel distance. 

Basic forms of network analysis simply extract information from a network. More complex
analysis, process information in the network model to derive new information. One example of
this is the classic shortest-path between two points. The vector mode is more suited to network
analysis than the raster model. 

A Road Network 

Image

Tabular Statistical Analysis

If in the above road network we have categorised the streets then in such a case the statistical
analysis answers questions like

 What unique categories do I have for streets?

 How many features do I have for each unique category?
 Summarize by using any attribute?

Database Query 
The selective display and retrieval of information from a database are among the fundamental
requirements of GIS. The ability to selectively retrieve information from GIS is an important
facility. Database query simply asks to see already stored information. Basically there are two
types of query most general GIS allow: viz., 

Query by attribute, 
Query by geometry. 

Map features can be retrieved on the basis of attributes, For example, show all the urban areas
having the population density greater than 1,000 per square kilometer, Many GIS include a
sophisticated function of RDBMS known as Standard Query Language (SQL), to search a GIS
database. The attribute database, in general, is stored in a table (relational database mode.) with
a unique code linked to the geometric data. This database can be searched with specific
characteristics. However, more complex queries can be made with the help of SQL. 

GIS can carry out a number of geometric queries. The simplest application, for example, is to
show the attributes of displayed objects by identifying them with a graphical cursor. There are
five forms of primitive geometric query: viz., 

Query by point, 
Query by rectangle, 
Query by circle, 
Query by line, 
Query by polygon, 

A more complex query still is one that uses both geometric and attributes search criteria
together. Many GIS force the separation of the two different types of query. However, some GIS,
using databases to store both geometric and attribute data, allow true hybrid spatial queries.
Overlay Operations
The hallmark of GIS is overlay operations. Using these operations, new spatial elements are
created by the overlaying of maps. 
There are basically two different types of overlay operations depending upon data structures: 

Raster overlay It is a relatively straightforward operation and often many data sets can be
combined and displayed at once.

Vector overlay The vector overlay, however is far more difficult and complex and involves more
processing.

Logical Operators
The concept of map logic can be applied during overlay. The logical operators are Boolean
functions. There are basically four types of Boolean Operators: viz., OR, AND, NOT, and XOR.

With the use of logical, or Boolean, operators spatial elements / or attributes are selected that
fulfill certain condition, depending on two or more spatial elements or attributes.
Vector Overlay
During vector overlay, map features and the associated attributes are integrated to produce new
composite maps. Logical rules can be applied to how the maps are combined. Vector overlay
can be performed on different types of map features: viz., 

Polygon-on-polygon overlay

Line-in-polygon overlay
Point-on-polygon overlay

During the process of overlay, the attribute data associated with each feature type id merged.
The resulting table will contain both the attribute data. The process of overlay will depend upon
the modelling approach the user needs. One might need to carry out a series of overlay
procedures to arrive at the conclusion, which depends upon the criterion. 

Polygon-on-Polygon Overlay 

Polygon-on-Polygon Overlay 

Difference between a Topologic Overlay and a Graphic Over plot 

 Difference between a Topologic Overlay and a Graphic Over plot

Raster Overlay
In raster overlay, the pixel or grid cell values in each map are combined using arithmetic and
Boolean operators to produce a new value in the composite map. The maps can be treated as
arithmetical variables and perform complex algebraic functions. The method is often described
as map algebra. The raster GIS provides the ability to perform map layers mathematically. This is
particularly important for the modelling in which various maps are combined using various
mathematical functions. Conditional operators are the basic mathematical functions that are
supported in GIS. 

Conditional Operators
Conditional operators were already used in the examples given above. The all evaluate whether
a certain condition has been met. 

= eq 'equal' operator
<> ne 'non-equal' operator
< lt 'less than' operator
<= le 'less than or equal' operator
> gt 'greater than' operator
>= ge 'greater than or equal' operator
Many systems now can handle both vector and raster data. The vector maps can be easily
draped on to the raster maps. 

Raster Overlay

Raster Overlay

Buffer Operation
Using these operations, the characteristics of an area surrounding in a specified location are
evaluated. This kind of analysis is called proximity analysis and is used whenever analysis is
required to identify surrounding geographic features. The buffer operation will generate polygon
feature types irrespective of geographic features and delineates spatial proximity. For example,
what are the effects on urban areas if the road is expanded by a hundred meters to delineate a
five-kilometer buffer zone around the national park to protect it from grazing. 

Using Buffer 

Using Buffer

Digital Terrain Model

The object of Digital Terrain analysis is to represent a surface and its properties accurately. This
is normally achieved by creating a digital terrain model, often known as DTM, formed by
sampling the surface. A digital terrain model can be viewed in two different ways:

 as an isoline map,
 as an isometric model.

Isolines join points of equal value on a surface. The shading defines bands, including all heights,
between the isolines. 

Isometric models can be shown in three-dimensional models. These models show the terrain in
perspective so that the apparent height is proportional to the value of the point. Visualisation
techniques are used to project the model from the given eyepoint. 

Spatial Analysis - a Process 

Spatial Analysis a Process