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Intelligence quotient
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"IQ" redirects here. For other uses, see IQ (disambiguation).

Human intelligence

Measuring and varieties

Intelligence quotient
General intelligence factor
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
Triarchic theory of intelligence
Theory of multiple intelligences

Factors associated with intelligence

Environment and intelligence

Evolution of human intelligence
Fertility and intelligence
Flynn effect
Health and intelligence
Height and intelligence
Heritability of IQ
Longevity and intelligence
Nations and intelligence
Neuroscience and intelligence
Race and intelligence
Religiosity and intelligence
Sex and psychology
 Related

Creativity · High IQ society

Genius · Giftedness · Dysrationalia

v·d·e

An example of one kind of IQ test item, modeled after items in the Raven's Progressive Matrices
test.
An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of several different standardized
tests designed to assess intelligence. The term "IQ" comes from the German Intelligenz-Quotient.
When modern IQ tests are constructed the median score is set to 100 and a standard deviation to
15. Today almost all IQ tests adhere to the assignment of 15 IQ points to each standard deviation
but this has not been the case historically. Approximately 95% of the population have scores
within two standard deviations of the mean. If one SD is 15 points, then 95% of the population
are within a range of 70 to 130.
IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality,
parental social status,[1] and, to a substantial degree, parental IQ. While the heritability of IQ has
been investigated for nearly a century, controversy remains regarding the significance of
heritability estimates,[2][3] and the mechanisms of inheritance are still a matter of some debate.[4]
IQ scores are used in many contexts: as predictors of educational achievement or special needs,
by social scientists who study the distribution of IQ scores in populations and the relationships
between IQ score and other variables, and as predictors of job performance and income.
The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three points
per decade since the early 20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed
whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
 ○ 1.1 Early history
○ 1.2 After World War One
• 2 Mental age vs. modern method
• 3 Modern tests
• 4 Reliability and validity
• 5 The general intelligence factor (g)
• 6 Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
• 7 Flynn effect
• 8 IQ and age
• 9 Heritability of IQ
○ 9.1 "Heritability"
○ 9.2 Shared family environment
○ 9.3 Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family
○ 9.4 Individual genes
○ 9.5 Regression towards the mean
○ 9.6 Gene-environment interaction
• 10 Interventions
• 11 IQ and brain anatomy
• 12 Health and IQ
• 13 Social outcomes
○ 13.1 Other tests
○ 13.2 School performance
○ 13.3 Job performance
○ 13.4 Income
○ 13.5 IQ and crime
○ 13.6 Other correlations with IQ
○ 13.7 Real-life accomplishments
• 14 Group differences
○ 14.1 Sex
○ 14.2 Race
○ 14.3 Nations
• 15 Public policy
• 16 Criticism and views
○ 16.1 Relation between IQ and intelligence
 ○ 16.2 Criticism of g
○ 16.3 Test bias
○ 16.4 Outdated methodology
○ 16.5 "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"
• 17 High IQ societies
• 18 Popular culture usage
• 19 Reference charts
• 20 See also
• 21 References
○ 21.1 Notes
○ 21.2 Bibliography
• 22 External links

History
See also: History of the race and intelligence controversy
Early history
The first large scale mental test may have been the imperial examination system in China.
Modern mental testing began in France in the nineteenth century. It contributed to separating
mental retardation from mental illness and reducing the neglect, torture, and ridicule heaped on
both groups.[5]
Englishman Francis Galton, half-cousin to Charles Darwin, created the terms psychometrics and
eugenics, and a method for measuring intelligence based on nonverbal sensory-motor tests. It
was initially popular but was abandoned after the discovery that it had no relationship to
outcomes such as college grades.[5][6]
French psychologists Alfred Binet, together with Victor Henri and Théodore Simon, after about
15 years of development, published the Binet-Simon test in 1905 which focused on verbal
abilities. It was intended to identify mental retardation in school children. American psychologist
Henry H. Goddard published a translation of it in 1910. The eugenics movement in the USA
seized on it as a means to give them credibility in diagnosing mental retardation. American
psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised the Binet-Simon scale which resulted
in the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (1916). It became the most popular test in the United
States for decades.[5][7][8][9]
Charles Spearman created the theory of a general intelligence factor in 1904. It argued that
intelligence is largely a single global ability called g but that there are also smaller, specific
factors or abilities for specific areas, labeled s. The theory remains influential and is discussed in
a later section.[5]
During World War I a way was needed to evaluate and assign recruits. This caused a rapid
development of several mental tests. The testing also caused controversy, misinterpretations of
the data such as recent immigrants with poor English being deemed inferior in intellect,
accusations of racism, and much public debate. Nonverbal or "Performance" tests were
developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.[5]
After World War One
However, a great deal of positive post war publicity on army psychological testing helped to
make psychology a respected field.[10] Subsequently there was an increase in jobs and funding in
psychology.[11] Group intelligence tests were developed for and became widely used in both
primary and secondary schools, universities and industry.[12]
L.L. Thurstone (1938) argued for a model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors
(verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory,
perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction). While not widely used, it influenced later theories.[5]
David Wechsler produced the first version of his test in 1939. It gradually become more popular
and overtook the Binet in the 1960s. It has been revised several times, as is common for IQ tests
in order to incorporate new research. One explanation is that psychologists and educators wanted
more information than the single score from the Binet. Wechsler’s 10+ subtests provided this.
Another is that the Binet focused on verbal abilities while the Wechsler also included non-verbal
abilities. The Binet has also been revised several times and is now similar to the Wechsler in
several aspects and but the Wechsler continues to be the most popular test in the United States.[5]
J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (1967) model used three dimensions which when combined
yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s but faded
due to both practical problems and theoretical criticisms.[5]
Alexander Luria's earlier work on neuropsychological processes lead to the PASS theory (1997).
It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians
who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, mental retardation, and interventions
for such disabilities. The PASS model covers four kinds of processes. The (P)lanning processes
involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and requires goal setting
and self-monitoring. The (A)ttention/arousal process involves selectively attending to a
particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance. (S)imultaneous processing
involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships.
(S)uccessive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order. The planning and
attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the
simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in the posterior region of
the cortex.[13][14][15] It has influenced some recent IQ tests and been seen as a complement to the
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory described below.[5]
Raymond Cattell (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities in a revision of Spearman's
concept of general intelligence. Fluid intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve
novel problems by using reasoning and crystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as a
knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and experience. In addition, fluid
intelligence was hypothesized to decline with age while crystallized intelligence was largely
resistant. The theory was almost forgotten but revived by his student John L. Horn (1966) who
later argued that Gf and Gc were only two among several factors and he eventually identified 9
or 10 broad abilities. The theory continued to be called Gf-Gc theory.[5]
John B. Carroll (1993) after a comprehensive re-analysis of earlier data proposed the Three
Stratum Theory, which is a hierarchical model with three levels. At the bottom is the first stratum
which consists of narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability).
The second stratum consists of broad abilities. Carroll identified eight second-stratum abilities.
Carroll accepted Spearman's concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a
representation of the uppermost third stratum.[16][17]
More recently (1999), a merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-
Stratum theory has led to the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It has greatly influenced many of the
current IQ tests.[5]
Mental age vs. modern method

The IQs of a large enough population are calculated so that they conform[18] to a normal
distribution.
The term "IQ" comes from German "Intelligenz-Quotient", coined by the German psychologist
William Stern in 1912, who proposed a method of scoring children's intelligence tests. He
calculated the IQ score as the quotient of the "mental age" (the age group which scored such a
result on average) of the test-taker and the "chronological age" of the test-taker, multiplied by
100. Terman used this system for the first version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.[19]
This method has several problems such as not working for adults.
Wechsler introduced a different procedure for his test that is now used by almost all IQ tests.
When an IQ test is constructed, a standardization sample representative of the general population
takes the test. The median result is defined to be equivalent to 100 IQ points. In almost all
modern tests, a standard deviation of the results is defined to equivalent to 15 IQ points. When a
subject takes an IQ test, the result is ranked compared to the results of normalization sample and
the subject is given an IQ score equal to those with the same test result in the normalization
sample. Although the term "IQ" is still in common use, it is now an inaccurate description,
mathematically speaking, since a quotient is no longer involved.
The values of 100 and 15 were chosen in order to get somewhat similar scores as in the older
type of test. Likely as a part of the rivalry between the Binet and the Wechsler, the Binet until
2003 chose to have 16 for one SD, causing considerable confusion. Today almost all tests use 15
for one SD. Modern scores are sometimes referred to as "deviation IQs," while older method
age-specific scores are referred to as "ratio IQs."[5][20]
Modern tests
Well-known modern IQ tests include Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children, Stanford-Binet, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Kaufman
Assessment Battery for Children, and Raven's Progressive Matrices.
Approximately 95% or of the population have scores within two standard deviations of the mean.
If one SD is 15 points as is common in almost all modern tests, then 95% of the population are
within a range of 70 to 130. Alternatively, two-thirds of the population have IQ scores within one
SD of the mean, i.e. within the range 85-115.
IQ scales are ordinally scaled.[21][22][23][24] While one standard deviation is 15 points, and two SDs
are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that cognitive ability is linearly related to IQ, such
that IQ 50 means half the cognitive ability of IQ 100. In particular, IQ points are not percentage
points.
The correlation between IQ tests and achievement tests is about 0.7.[5][25]
Reliability and validity
IQ scores can differ to some degree for the same individual on different IQ tests (age 12–13
years).[26]
Pupil KABC-II WISC-III WJ-III
Asher 90 95 111
Brianna 125 110 105
Colin 100 93 101
Danica 116 127 118
Elpha 93 105 93
Fritz 106 105 105
Georgi 95 100 90
Hector 112 113 103
Imelda 104 96 97
Jose 101 99 86
Keoku 81 78 75
Leo 116 124 102
Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical reliability. A high reliability
implies that while test-takers can have varying scores on differing occasions when taking the
same test and can vary in scores on different IQ tests taken at the same age, the scores generally
agree. A test-taker's score on any one IQ test is surrounded by an error band that shows, to a
specified degree of confidence, what the test-taker's true score is likely to be. For modern tests,
the standard error of measurement is about 3 points, or in other words, the odds are about 2 out
of 3 that a persons true IQ is in range from 3 points above to 3 points below the test IQ. Another
description is that there is a 95% chance that the true IQ is in range from 4-5 points above to 4-5
points below the test IQ, depending on the test in question. Clinical psychologists generally
regard them as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes.[5][27][28]
The general intelligence factor (g)
Main article: General intelligence factor
There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of methods. Some tests are
visual, some are verbal, some tests only use of abstract-reasoning problems, and some tests
concentrate on arithmetic, spatial imagery, reading, vocabulary, memory or general knowledge.
The psychologist Charles Spearman early this century made the first formal factor analysis of
correlations between the tests. He found that a single common factor explained for the positive
correlations among test. This is an argument still accepted in principle by many
psychometricians. Spearman named it g for "general intelligence factor". In any collections of IQ
tests, by definition the test that best measures g is the one that has the highest correlations with
all the others. Most of these g-loaded tests typically involve some form of abstract reasoning.
Therefore Spearman and others have regarded g as the perhaps genetically determined real
essence of intelligence. This is still a common but not proven view. Other factor analyses of the
data are with different results are possible. Some psychometricians regard g as a statistical
artifact. The accepted best measure of g is Raven's Progressive Matrices which is a test of visual
reasoning.[29]
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory
Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll
theory. It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from research. A
hierarchy of factors is used. g is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are
subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are:[5]
• Fluid Intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve
problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures.
• Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired
knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using
previously learned experiences or procedures.
• Quantitative Reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and
relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols.
• Reading & Writing Ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills.
• Short-Term Memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in
immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds.
• Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently
retrieve it later in the process of thinking.
• Visual Processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with
visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations.
• Auditory Processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory
stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be
presented under distorted conditions.
• Processing Speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly
when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention.
• Decision/Reaction Time/Speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can
react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be
confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). See Mental
chronometry.
Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad abilities. For example, Gq and Grw
may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.[5] Gt may be difficult to measure
without special equipment.
g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which were thought to correspond to the
Nonverbal or Performance subtests and Verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular
Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.[5]
Modern comprehensive IQ tests no longer give a single score. Although they still give an overall
score, they now also gives scores for many of these more restricted abilities, identifying
particular strengths and weaknesses of an individual.[5]
Flynn effect
Main article: Flynn effect
Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have increased in most parts of the world.[30]
[31][32]
When a new version of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is set so that performance
at the population median results in a score of IQ 100. The phenomenon of rising raw score
performance means that if test-takers are scored by a constant standard scoring rule, IQ test
scores have been rising at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade. This
phenomenon was named the Flynn effect in the book The Bell Curve after James R. Flynn, the
author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to the attention of psychologists.[33][34]
Researchers have been exploring the issue of whether the Flynn effect is equally strong on
performance of all kinds of IQ test items, whether the effect may have ended in some developed
nations, whether or not there are social subgroup differences in the effect, and what possible
causes of the effect might be.[35] Flynn's observation has prompted much new research in
psychology and "demolish some long-cherished beliefs, and raise a number of other interesting
issues along the way."[31]
IQ and age
IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood.[36] However, in one longitudinal
study, the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at r=.86 with the mean
scores of tests at ages 5, 6 and 7 and at r=.96 with the mean scores of tests at ages 11, 12 and 13.
[37]

IQ scores for children are relative to children of a similar age. That is, a child of a certain age
does not do as well on the tests as an older child or an adult with the same IQ. But relative to
persons of a similar age, or other adults in the case of adults, they do equally well if the IQ scores
are the same.[37]
For decades, it has been reported in practitioners' handbooks and textbooks on IQ testing that IQ
declines with age after the beginning of adulthood. However, later researchers pointed out that
this phenomenon is related to the Flynn effect and is in part a cohort effect rather than a true
aging effect.
There have been a variety of studies of IQ and aging since the norming of the first Wechsler
Intelligence Scale drew attention to IQ differences in different age groups of adults. Current
consensus is that fluid intelligence generally declines with age after early adulthood, while
crystallized intelligence remains intact. Both cohort effects (the birth year of the test-takers) and
practice effects (test-takers taking the same form of IQ test more than once) must be controlled
for to gain accurate data. It is unclear whether any lifestyle intervention can preserve fluid
intelligence into older ages.[38]
The peak of capacity for both fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence occurs at age 26.
This is followed by a slow decline.[39]
Heritability of IQ
Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ. Their relative importance have
been the subject of much research and debate.
"Heritability"
See also: Heritability of IQ and Environment and intelligence
"Heritability" is defined as the proportion of variance in a trait which is attributable to genotype
within a defined population in a specific environment. A heritability of 1 indicates that all
variation is genetic in origin and a heritability of 0 indicates that none of the variation is genetic.
There are a number of points to consider when interpreting heritability.[40] Some examples:
• Heritability measures the proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genes,
and not the proportion of a trait caused by genes. Thus, if the environment relevant to a
given trait changes in a way that affects all members of the population equally, the mean
value of the trait will change without any change in its heritability (because the variation
or differences among individuals in the population will stay the same). This has evidently
happened for height: the heritability of stature is high, but average heights continue to
increase.[37] Thus, even in developed nations, a high heritability of a trait does not
necessarily mean that average group differences are due to genes.[37][41] Some have gone
further, and used height as an example in order to argue that "even highly heritable traits
can be strongly manipulated by the environment, so heritability has little if anything to do
with controllability."[42] However, others argue that IQ is highly stable during life and has
been largely resistant to interventions aimed to change it long-term and substantially.[43][44]
[45]

• A common error is to assume that a heritability figure is necessarily unchangeable. The

value of heritability can change if the impact of environment (or of genes) in the
population is substantially altered.[37] If the environmental variation encountered by
different individuals increases, then the heritability figure would decrease. On the other
hand, if everyone had the same environment, then heritability would be 100%. The
population in developing nations often have more diverse environments than in
developed nations. This would mean that heritability figures would be lower in
developing nations. Another example is phenylketonuria which previously caused mental
retardation for everyone who had this genetic disorder and thus had a heritability of
100%. Today, this can be prevented by following a modified diet which has lowered
heritability.
• A high heritability of a trait does not mean that environmental effects such as learning are
not involved. Vocabulary size, for example, is very substantially heritable (and highly
correlated with general intelligence) although every word in an individual's vocabulary is
learned. In a society in which plenty of words are available in everyone's environment,
especially for individuals who are motivated to seek them out, the number of words that
individuals actually learn depends to a considerable extent on their genetic
predispositions and thus heritability is high.[37]
 • Since heritability increases during childhood and adolescence, and even increases greatly
between 16–20 years of age and adulthood, one should be cautious drawing conclusions
regarding the role of genetics and environment from studies where the participants are
not followed until they are adults. Furthermore, there may be differences regarding the
effects on g and on non-g factors, with g possibly being harder to affect and
environmental interventions disproportionately affecting non-g factors.[45]
Various studies have found the heritability of IQ to be between 0.7 and 0.8 in adults and 0.45 in
childhood in the United States.[37][46][47] It may seem reasonable to expect that genetic influences
on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. However, the
opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle
childhood, and as high as 0.8 in adulthood.[48] One proposed explanation is that people with
different genes tend to seek out different environments that reinforce the effects of those genes.
[37]
There is an ongoing debate, as discussed in the Heritability of IQ article, regarding if these
high heritability estimates are too high due to not adequately considering factors such as that the
environment may be relatively more important in families with low socio-economic status or the
effect of the maternal (fetal) environment.
Shared family environment
There are aspects of environments that family members have in common (for example,
characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25-0.35 of the
variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence it is is quite low (zero in some studies). There
is a similar effect for several other psychological traits. These studies have not looked the effects
of extreme environments such as in abusive families.[37][49][50][51]
Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family
Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small
amount of non-shared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently
to the same environment due to different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of
peers and other experiences outside the family.[37][50]
Individual genes
A number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ. Examples include
CHRM2, microcephalin, and ASPM. However, Deary and colleagues (2009) argued that there
are still almost no replicated evidence.[52] About 20,000 genes are thought to have an impact on
the development and functionality of the brain.[53]
Regression towards the mean
Regression towards the mean is a statistical phenomenon that occurs when an outcome is
determined by many independent factors. If an outcome is extreme, then this occurred because
most of the independent factors agreed by chance. This is unlikely to occur again so to the next
outcome is likely to be less extreme. If IQ is determined by many factors, genetic and/or
environmental, then they must mostly agree in the same direction in order to produce an extreme
IQ. The child of a person with an extreme IQ is unlikely to have all the factors agree so similarly
so the child is on average likely to have a less extreme IQ.
People in professional occupations have on average 25 points higher IQ than unskilled workers.
For their children the difference is 21 points. This is in itself not evidence for genetics or
environment since the environment for the children likely differs greatly with it on average being
more stimulating for the children of professionals.[5]
Gene-environment interaction
Dickens and Flynn (2001) argued that the "heritability" figure includes both a direct effect of the
genotype on IQ and also indirect effects where the genotype changes the environment, in turn
affecting IQ. That is, those with a higher IQ tend to seek out stimulating environments that
further increase IQ. The direct effect can initially have been very small but feedback loops can
create large differences in IQ. In their model an environmental stimulus can have a very large
effect on IQ, even in adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues
(the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition in early childhood, that
may cause permanent effects). The Flynn effect can be explained by a generally more
stimulating environment for all people. The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ
would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they taught children how to replicate
outside the program the kinds of cognitively demanding experiences that produce IQ gains while
they are in the program and motivate them to persist in that replication long after they have left
the program.[54][55]
Interventions
Interventions such as the Head Start Program have not produced lasting gains, although the more
intensive Abecedarian Project have.[37] In general, many interventions, as those described below,
have shown short-term effects on IQ, but long-term follow-up is often missing.
A placebo-controlled double-blind experiment found that vegetarians who took 5 grams of
creatine per day for six weeks showed a significant improvement on two separate tests of fluid
intelligence, Raven's Progressive Matrices, and the backward digit span test from the WAIS. The
treatment group was able to repeat longer sequences of numbers from memory and had higher
overall IQ scores than the control group. The researchers concluded that "supplementation with
creatine significantly increased intelligence compared with placebo."[56] A subsequent study
found that creatine supplements improved cognitive ability in the elderly.[57] A study on young
adults (0.03 g/kg/day for six weeks, e.g., 2 g/day for 150-pound individual) failed, however, to
find any improvements.[58]
Musical training in childhood has also been found to correlate with higher than average IQ.[59]
Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ. A
study on young adults published in April 2008 by a team from the Universities of Michigan and
Bern supports the possibility of the transfer of fluid intelligence from specifically designed
working memory training.[60][61] Further research will be needed to determine nature, extent and
duration of the proposed transfer. Among other questions, it remains to be seen whether the
results extend to other kinds of fluid intelligence tests than the matrix test used in the study, and
if so, whether, after training, fluid intelligence measures retain their correlation with educational
and occupational achievement or if the value of fluid intelligence for predicting performance on
other tasks changes. It is also unclear whether the training is durable of extended periods of time.
[62]

IQ and brain anatomy

Main article: Neuroscience and intelligence
Some studies have not found a correlation between some measures of brain size and IQ. Thus,
Jensen and Reed in a 1993 study found no correlation between cranial capacity and IQ in
nonpathological subjects (N=211).[63] However, more recent meta-analyses and reviews find such
a correlation. Rushton and Ankney (2009) in a literature review write that in 28 samples using
brain imaging techniques the mean brain size/g correlation was 0.40 (N = 1,389). In 59 samples
using external head size measures it was 0.20 (N = 63,405). In 6 studies that corrected for that
different IQ subtests measure g unequally well, the mean correlation was 0.63. Some studies
have found the whole brain to be important for g while others have found the frontal lobes to be
particularly important. Two studies founds correlations of 0.48 and 0.56 between brain size and
the number of neurons in the cerebral cortex (based on counting in representative areas.[64][65]
Luders and colleagues in a literature review (2009) write that the majority of data shows that
both gray matter and white matter volume correlate with IQ but the correlation is stronger for
gray matter. Increased number of neurons in the gray matter may explain the higher correlation
but not necessarily so since glucose consumption and intelligence measures correlate negatively
which may mean intelligent individuals use their neurons more efficiently, such as being more
efficient in their formation of synapses between neurons which help to create more efficient
neural circuitry. The white matter correlation may be due to more myelination or better control
of pH and thus enhanced neural transmission. For more specific regions, the most frequently
replicated positive correlations appear localized in the lateral and medial frontal lobe cortex.
Positive correlations are also found with volume in many other areas. Cortical thickness may be
a better measure than gray matter volume although this may vary with age with an initially
negative correlation in early childhood becoming positive later. The explanation may again be
that more intelligent individuals manage their synapses better. During evolution not only brain
size but also brain folding has increased which has increased the surface area. Convolution data
may support the "The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory" which see medial cortex structures as
particularly important. Volume of the corpus callosum or subareas were found to be important in
several studies which may be due to more efficient inter-hemispheric information transfer.[66]
Brain injuries at an early age isolated to one side of the brain typically results in relatively spared
intellectual function and with IQ in the normal range.[67]
Health and IQ
Main article: Health and intelligence
Proper childhood nutrition appears critical for cognitive development; malnutrition can lower IQ.
For example, iodine deficiency causes a fall, in average, of 12 IQ points.[68] It is expected that
average IQ in third world countries will increase if malnutrition of various kinds is eradicated.
One recent study found that a group of children with the "C" version of the FADS2 gene who
were breastfed acquired on average 7 IQ points higher than to those with the "G" allele of the
gene.[69][70] Other studies have failed to replicate any correlation between the FADS2 gene,[71]
breastfeeding and IQ, while others show a negative effect on IQ when combining bottledfeeding,
and the "G" version of FADS2 .[72]
People with a higher IQ have generally lower adult morbidity and mortality. Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder[73] and schizophrenia[74][75] are less prevalent in higher IQ bands. People in the
midsts of a major depressive episode have been shown to have a lower IQ than when without
symptoms and lower cognitive ability than people without depression of equivalent verbal
intelligence.[76][77]
A study of 11,282 individuals in Scotland who took intelligence tests at ages 7, 9 and 11 in the
1950s and 1960s, found an "inverse linear association" between childhood IQ scores and hospital
admissions for injuries in adulthood. The association between childhood IQ and the risk of later
injury remained even after accounting for factors such as the child's socioeconomic background.
[78]
Research in Scotland has also shown that a 15-point lower IQ meant people had a fifth less
chance of living to 76, while those with a 30-point disadvantage were 37% less likely than those
with a higher IQ to live that long.[79]
A decrease in IQ has also been shown as an early predictor of late-onset Alzheimer's Disease and
other forms of dementia. In a 2004 study, Cervilla and colleagues showed that tests of cognitive
ability provide useful predictive information up to a decade before the onset of dementia.[80]
However, when diagnosing individuals with a higher level of cognitive ability, in this study those
with IQs of 120 or more,[81] patients should not be diagnosed from the standard norm but from an
adjusted high-IQ norm that measured changes against the individual's higher ability level. In
2000, Whalley and colleagues published a paper in the journal Neurology, which examined links
between childhood mental ability and late-onset dementia. The study showed that mental ability
scores were significantly lower in children who eventually developed late-onset dementia when
compared with other children tested.[82]
IQ is also negatively correlated with certain diseases.
Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during
pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood-brain barrier is less effective.
Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, or may sometimes be partially or wholly
compensated for by later growth. Several harmful factors may also combine, possibly causing
greater impairment.
Developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding nutrients and toxins
known to influence cognitive function. These include laws requiring fortification of certain food
products and laws establishing safe levels of pollutants (e.g. lead, mercury, and organochlorides).
Comprehensive policy recommendations targeting reduction of cognitive impairment in children
have been proposed.[83]
In terms of the effect of one's intelligence on health, in one British study, high childhood IQ was
shown to correlate with one's chance of becoming a vegetarian in adulthood.[84] In another British
study, high childhood IQ was shown to inversely correlate with the chances of smoking.[85]
There is also a relationship between longevity and intelligence.
Social outcomes
Outside of academic research and medicine, IQ testing is often done due to its ability to predict
future job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Academic research has
also examined these associations, as well as the effect of IQ on other social outcomes, such as
income and wealth.
Many of the arguments and criticisms assume that explained variance can be calculated as the
square (algebra) of the correlation coefficient. This way of calculating explained variance has
been criticized as inappropriate for most social scientific work.[86] Also, as for the heritability
figure, the explained variance only refers to the proportion of variation in an outcome that is
explained by a factor, and not the proportion of an outcome that is explained by a factor.
Other tests
One study found a correlation of 0.82 between g (general intelligence factor) and SAT scores;[87]
another has found correlation of 0.81 between g and GCSE scores.[88]
Correlations between IQ scores (general cognitive ability) and achievement test scores are
reported to be 0.81 by Deary and colleagues, with the explained variance ranging "from 58.6% in
Mathematics and 48% in English to 18.1% in Art and Design".[88]
School performance
The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" states
that wherever it has been studied, children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn
more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers. The correlation between IQ
scores and grades is about .50. This means that the explained variance is 25%. Achieving good
grades depends on many factors other than IQ, such as "persistence, interest in school, and
willingness to study" (p. 81).[37]
Job performance
According to Frank Schmidt and John Hunter, "for hiring employees without previous
experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general mental ability."[89]
The validity of IQ as a predictor of job performance is above zero for all work studied to date,
but varies with the type of job and across different studies, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6.[90] The
correlations were higher when the unreliability of measurement methods were controlled for.[37]
While IQ is more strongly correlated with reasoning and less so with motor function,[91] IQ-test
scores predict performance ratings in all occupations.[89] That said, for highly qualified activities
(research, management) low IQ scores are more likely to be a barrier to adequate performance,
whereas for minimally-skilled activities, athletic strength (manual strength, speed, stamina, and
coordination) are more likely to influence performance.[89] It is largely mediated through the
quicker acquisition of job-relevant knowledge that IQ predicts job performance.
In establishing a causal direction to the link between IQ and work performance, longitudinal
studies by Watkins and others suggest that IQ exerts a causal influence on future academic
achievement, whereas academic achievement does not substantially influence future IQ scores.[92]
Treena Eileen Rohde and Lee Anne Thompson write that general cognitive ability but not
specific ability scores predict academic achievement, with the exception that processing speed
and spatial ability predict performance on the SAT math beyond the effect of general cognitive
ability.[93]
The US military has minimum enlistment standards at about the IQ 85 level. There have been
two experiments with lowering this to 80 but in both cases these men could not master soldiering
well enough to justify their costs [94]
The American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" states
that since the explained variance is 29%, other individual characteristics such as interpersonal
skills, aspects of personality etc. are probably of equal or greater importance, but at this point
there are no equally reliable instruments to measure them.[37]
Income
Some researchers claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something
with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does
not buy you that much."[95][96]
Other studies show that ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ
levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance.[97] Charles
Murray, coauthor of The Bell Curve, found that IQ has a substantial effect on income
independently of family background.[98]
Taking the above two principles together, very high IQ produces very high job performance, but
no greater income than slightly high IQ. Studies also show that high IQ is related to higher net
worth.[99]
The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
stated that IQ scores accounted for (explained variance) about one-fourth of the social status
variance and one-sixth of the income variance. Statistical controls for parental SES eliminate
about a quarter of this predictive power. Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great
many factors that influence social outcomes.[37]
Some studies claim that IQ only accounts for (explained variance) a sixth of the variation in
income because many studies are based on young adults (many of whom have not yet completed
their education). On pg 568 of The g Factor, Arthur Jensen claims that although the correlation
between IQ and income averages a moderate 0.4 (one sixth or 16% of the variance), the
relationship increases with age, and peaks at middle age when people have reached their
maximum career potential. In the book, A Question of Intelligence, Daniel Seligman cites an IQ
income correlation of 0.5 (25% of the variance).
A 2002 study[100] further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income and concluded that an
individual's location, inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important as factors in
determining income than IQ.
IQ and crime
The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
stated that the correlation between IQ and crime was -0.2. It was -0.19 between IQ scores and
number of juvenile offenses in a large Danish sample; with social class controlled, the
correlation dropped to -0.17. A correlation of 0.20 means that the explained variance is less than
4%. It is important to realize that the causal links between psychometric ability and social
outcomes may be indirect. Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated.
Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other
children who do well.[37]
In his book The g Factor (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that, regardless of race,
people with IQs between 70 and 90 have higher crime rates than people with IQs below or above
this range, with the peak range being between 80 and 90.
The 2009 Handbook of Crime Correlates stated that reviews have found that around eight IQ
points, or 0.5 SD, separate criminals from the general population, especially for persistent
serious offenders. It has been suggested that this simply reflects that "only dumb ones get
caught" but there is similarly a negative relation between IQ and self-reported offending. That
children with conduct disorder have lower IQ than their peers "strongly argue" against the
theory.[101]
Other correlations with IQ
In addition, IQ and its correlation to health, violent crime, gross state product, and government
effectiveness are the subject of a 2006 paper in the publication Intelligence. The paper breaks
down IQ averages by U.S. states using the federal government's National Assessment of
Educational Progress math and reading test scores as a source.[102]
The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
stated that the correlations for most "negative outcome" variables are typically smaller than 0.20,
which means that the explained variance is less than 4%.[37]
Tambs et al.[103][non-primary source needed] found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ
are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational
attainment ... contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational
status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ." In a sample of U.S. siblings, Rowe et al.[104]
report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared
environmental factors playing a subordinate role.
There are also other correlations such as those between religiosity and intelligence and fertility
and intelligence.
Real-life accomplishments
Average adult IQs associated with real-life accomplishments:[5]
• MDs or PhDs 125
• College graduates 115
• 1–3 years of college 105-110
• Clerical and sales workers 100-105
• High school graduates, skilled workers (e.g., electricians, cabinetmakers) 100
• 1–3 years of of high school (completed 9–11 years of school) 95
• Semi-skilled workers (e.g., truck drivers, factory workers) 90-95
• Elementary school graduates (completed eighth grade) 90
• Elementary school dropouts (completed 0–7 years of school) 80-85
• Have 50/50 chance of reaching high school 75
Average IQ of various occupational groups:[5]
• Professional and technical 112
• Managers and administrators 104
• Clerical workers; sales workers; skilled workers, craftsmen, and foremen 101
• Semi-skilled workers (operatives, service workers, including private household; farmers
and farm managers) 92
• Unskilled workers 87
Type of work that can be accomplished:[5]
• Adults can harvest vegetables, repair furniture 60
• Adults can do domestic work, simple carpentry 50
• Adults can mow lawns, do simple laundry 40
There is considerable variation within and overlap between these categories. People with high
IQs are found at all levels of education and occupational categories. The biggest difference
occurs for low IQs with only an occasional college graduate or professional scoring below 90.[5]
Group differences
Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that
intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic and racial groups and sexes. While
there is little scholarly debate about the existence of some of these differences, their causes
remain highly controversial both within academia and in the public sphere.
Sex
Main article: Sex and intelligence
Men and women have statistically significant differences in average scores on tests of particular
abilities.[105][106] Studies also illustrate consistently greater variance in the performance of men
compared to that of women.[107]
IQ tests are weighted on these sex differences so there is no bias on average in favor of one sex,
however the consistent difference in variance is not removed. Because the tests are defined so
there is no average difference it is difficult to put any meaning on a statement that one sex has a
higher intelligence than the other. However some people have made claims like this even using
unbiased IQ tests. For instance, there are claims that men tend to outperform women on average
by three to four IQ points based on tests of medical students where the greater variance of men's
IQ can be expected to contribute to the result,[108] or where a 'correction' is made for different
maturation ages.[citation needed]
Race
Main article: Race and intelligence
The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological
Association concluded that there are significant variations in IQ across races.[37] The problem of
determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of
"nature and nurture" to IQ. Psychologists such as Alan S. Kaufman[109] and Nathan Brody[110] and
statisticians such as Bernie Devlin[111] argue that there are insufficient data to conclude that this is
because of genetic influences. One of the most notable researchers arguing for a strong genetic
influence on these average score differences is Arthur Jensen. In contrast, other researchers such
as Richard Nisbett argues that environmental factors can explain all of the average group
differences.[112]
Nations
Main article: Nations and intelligence
A number of literature reviews have found differences in average national IQs. Other studies
have found many factors such economic growth, democracy, crime, fertility, or atheism to be
associated with average national IQs. In particular for developing nations environmental factors
such as malnutrition and diseases likely affect average national IQs.
Public policy
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States
and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article
and discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2010)
Main article: Intelligence and public policy
In the United States, certain public policies and laws regarding military service,[113] [114] education,
public benefits,[115] capital punishment,[116] and employment incorporate an individual's IQ into
their decisions. However, in the case of Griggs v. Duke Power Co. in 1971, for the purpose of
minimizing employment practices that disparately impacted racial minorities, the U.S. Supreme
Court banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except in very rare cases.[117] Internationally,
certain public policies, such as improving nutrition and prohibiting neurotoxins, have as one of
their goals raising, or preventing a decline in, intelligence.
A diagnosis of mental retardation is in part based on the results of IQ testing. Borderline
intellectual functioning is a categorization where a person has below average cognitive ability
(an IQ of 71–85), but the deficit is not as severe as mental retardation (70 or below).
Criticism and views
Relation between IQ and intelligence
See also: Intelligence
IQ is the most researched approach to intelligence and by far the most widely used in practical
setting. There are critics, who do not dispute the stability of IQ test scores or the fact that they
predict certain forms of achievement rather effectively. They do argue, however, that to base a
concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental
ability.[1][118]
Criticism of g
Some scientists dispute IQ entirely. In The Mismeasure of Man (1996), paleontologist Stephen
Jay Gould criticized IQ tests and argued that that they were used for scientific racism. He argued
that g was a mathematical artifact and criticized:
…the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification
as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series
of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups—races, classes, or
sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status.(pp. 24–25)
Psychologist Peter Schönemann was also a persistent critic of IQ, calling it "the IQ myth". He
argued that g is a flawed theory and that the high heritability estimates of IQ are based on false
assumptions.[119][120]
Psychologist Arthur Jensen has rejected the criticism by Gould and also argued that even if g was
replaced by a model with several intelligences this would change the situation less than expected.
All tests of cognitive ability would continue to be highly correlated with one anther and there
would still be a black-white gap on cognitive tests.[121] James R. Flynn, an intelligence researcher
known for his criticisms of racial theories of intelligence, similarly argued that "Gould's book
evades all of [Arthur] Jensen's best arguments for a genetic component in the black-white IQ gap
by positing that they are dependent on the concept of g as a general intelligence factor.
Therefore, Gould believes that if he can discredit g no more need be said. This is manifestly
false. Jensen's arguments would bite no matter whether blacks suffered from a score deficit on
one or 10 or 100 factors."[122]
Test bias
See also: Stereotype threat
The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns stated
that in the United States IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against
African Americans since they predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly
to the way they predict future performance for Whites.[37]
However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations. A 2005 study stated that
"differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences
that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American
students,"[123] indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other
recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.[124][125]
Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet, are often inappropriate for children with
autism; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor
measures of intelligence in autistic children, and may have resulted in incorrect claims that a
majority of children with autism are mentally retarded.[126]
Outdated methodology
A 2006 article stated that contemporary psychologic research often did not reflect substantial
recent developments in psychometrics and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric
state of the art as it existed in the 1950s." However, it also states that an "increasing number of
psychometrically informed research papers that have been appearing in the past decade." [127]
"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"
In response to the controversy surrounding The Bell Curve, the American Psychological
Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a report on the
state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion,
"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns". The full text of the report is available through several
websites.[37][128]
In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently
written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so
much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications".
The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual
differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult
occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been
statistically controlled. They stated that individual differences in intelligence are substantially
influenced by both genetics and environment.
The report stated that a number of biological factors, including malnutrition, exposure to toxic
substances, and various prenatal and perinatal stressors, result in lowered psychometric
intelligence under at least some conditions. The task force agrees that large differences do exist
between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites. "The cause of that differential is not known;
it is apparently not due to any simple form of bias in the content or administration of the tests
themselves. The Flynn effect shows that environmental factors can produce differences of at
least this magnitude, but that effect is mysterious in its own right. Several culturally based
explanations of the Black/ White IQ differential have been proposed; some are plausible, but so
far none has been conclusively supported. There is even less empirical support for a genetic
interpretation. In short, no adequate explanation of the differential between the IQ means of
Blacks and Whites is presently available."
The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, subsequently published
eleven critical responses in January 1997, several of them arguing that the report failed to
examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.
High IQ societies
Main article: High IQ society
There are social organizations, some international, which limit membership to people who have
scores as high as or higher than the 98th percentile on some IQ test or equivalent. Mensa
International is perhaps the most well known of these. There are other groups requiring a score
above the 98th percentile.
Popular culture usage
Many websites and magazines use the term IQ to refer to technical or popular knowledge in a
variety of subjects not related to intelligence, including sex,[129] poker,[130] and American football,
[131]
among a wide variety of other topics. These tests are generally not standardized and do not fit
within the normal definition of intelligence. Modern Intelligence tests are not merely placing a
test taker's score within the norm, as presumably are the thousands of alleged "IQ Tests" found
on the internet, but they are also testing factors (e.g., fluid and crystallized intelligence, working
memory, and the like) that were previously found to represent pure measures of intelligence
using factor analysis. This claim may not be made for the hundreds of online tests marketing
themselves as IQ Tests, a distinction that may be unfortunately lost upon the public taking them.
Reference charts
Main article: IQ reference chart
IQ reference charts are tables suggested by test publishers to divide intelligence ranges in various
categories.
See also
• Child prodigy
• Cultural intelligence
• Curiosity quotient
• Developmental disability
• Educational quotient
• Genius
• Intellectual giftedness
• Late bloomer
• Learning disability
• Malleable intelligence
• Nature versus nurture
• Savant syndrome
• Sentience quotient
• Social IQ
• Spiritual intelligence
References
Notes
1. ^ a b Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns (Report of a Task Force established by the Board of Scientific
Affairs of the American Psychological Association - Released August 7, 1995 — a slightly edited version
was published in American Psychologist: Neisser, Ulric; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J., Jr.;
Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C. et al. (1996).
 "Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns". American Psychologist 51 (2): 77–101. doi:10.1037/0003-
066X.51.2.77. http://internal.psychology.illinois.edu/~broberts/Neisser%20et%20al,
%201996,%20intelligence.pdf. )
2. ^ Johnson, Wendy; Turkheimer, Eric; Gottesman, Irving I.; Bouchard Jr., Thomas J. (2009). "Beyond
Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research". Current Directions in Psychological Science 18 (4):
217–220. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01639.x. PMC 2899491. PMID 20625474.
http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Johnson
%20%282009%29.pdf.
3. ^ Turkheimer, Eric (spring 2008). "A Better Way to Use Twins for Developmental Research". LIFE
Newsletter (Max Planck Institute for Human Development): 2–5.
http://people.virginia.edu/~ent3c/papers2/Articles%20for%20Online%20CV/Turkheimer
%20%282008%29.pdf. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
4. ^ Devlin, B.; Daniels, Michael; Roeder, Kathryn (1997). "The heritability of IQ". Nature 388 (6641): 468–
71. doi:10.1038/41319. PMID 9242404.
http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/spring06/mcguem/psy5137/readings/devlin%201997.pdf.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w IQ Testing 101, Alan S. Kaufman, 2009, Springer Publishing Company,
ISBN 0826106293 ISBN 9780826106292
6. ^ Gillham, Nicholas W. (2001). "Sir Francis Galton and the birth of eugenics". Annual Review of Genetics
35 (1): 83–101. doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090055. PMID 11700278.
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(1915). "The Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon scale and some results from its application to 1000 non-
selected children". Journal of Educational Psychology 6 (9): 551–62. doi:10.1037/h0075455.
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9. ^ Richardson, John T. E. (2003). "Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis
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PMID 12822554.
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organizational psychology in the United States". Journal of Applied Psychology 77 (6): 803–35.
doi:10.1037/0021-9010.77.6.803.
12. ^ Kevles, D. J. (1968). "Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I".
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doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00162.
15. ^ Naglieri, J.A., & Das, J.P. (2002). "Planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive cognitive processes
as a model for assessment". School Psychology Review 19: 423–442.
16. ^ Lubinski, D. (2004). "Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearman's
(1904) '"General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured'". Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology 86 (1): 96–111. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.96. PMID 14717630.
17. ^ Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521387124.
18. ^ S.E. Embretson & S.P.Reise: Item response theory for psychologists, 2000. "...for many other
psychological tests, normal distributions are achieved by normalizing procedures. For example, intelligence
 tests..." Found on: http://books.google.se/books?id=rYU7rsi53gQC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=
%22intelligence+tests%22+normalize&source=bl&ots=ZAIQEgaa6Q&sig=q-
amDaZqx7Ix6mMkvIDMnj9M9O0&hl=sv&ei=lEEJTNqSIYWMOPqLuRE&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=r
esult&resnum=7&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false
19. ^ Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ and Human Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 15.
ISBN 978-0-19-852367-3. Lay summary (9 August 2010).
20. ^ Pinneau, Samuel R. (1961). Changes in Intelligence Quotient Infancy to Maturity: New Insights from the
Berkeley Growth Study with Implications for the Stanford-Binet Scales and Applications to Professional
Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
21. ^ Mussen, Paul Henry (1973). Psychology: An Introduction. Lexington (MA): Heath. p. 363. ISBN 0-669-
61383-7. "The I.Q. is essentially a rank; there are no true "units" of intellectual ability."
22. ^ Truch, Steve (1993). The WISC-III Companion: A Guide to Interpretation and Educational Intervention.
Austin (TX): Pro-Ed. p. 35. ISBN 0890795851. "An IQ score is not an equal-interval score, as is evident in
Table A.4 in the WISC-III manual."
23. ^ Bartholomew, David J. (2004). Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780521544788. Lay summary (27 July 2010). "When we come to quantities
like IQ or g, as we are presently able to measure them, we shall see later that we have an even lower level
of measurement—an ordinal level. This means that the numbers we assign to individuals can only be used
to rank them—the number tells us where the individual comes in the rank order and nothing else."
24. ^ Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ and Human Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–31.
ISBN 0-19-852367-X. "In the jargon of psychological measurement theory, IQ is an ordinal scale, where
we are simply rank-ordering people. . . . It is not even appropriate to claim that the 10-point difference
between IQ scores of 110 and 100 is the same as the 10-point difference between IQs of 160 and 150"
25. ^ Naglieri, J. A.; Bornstein, B. T. (2003). "Intelligence and Achievement: Just how Correlated are they?".
Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 21 (3): 244–260. doi:10.1177/073428290302100302. edit

26. ^ (IQ score table data and pupil pseudonyms adapted from description of KABC-II norming study cited in
Kaufman 2009.Kaufman, Alan S. (2009). IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. pp. 151–153.
ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2.
27. ^ Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, MaudeA. (1937). Measuring intelligence: A guide to the
administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence. Riverside textbooks in education.
Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. p. 44.
28. ^ Anastasi, Anne; Urbina, Susana (1997). Psychological Testing (Seventh ed.). Upper Saddle River (NJ):
Prentice Hall. pp. 326–327. ISBN 978-0023030857. Lay summary (28 July 2010).
29. ^ Neisser U (1997). "Rising Scores on Intelligence Tests". American Scientist 85: 440–7.
http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/rising-scores-on-intelligence-tests/1.
30. ^ Neisser, Ulric, ed (1998). The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures. APA
Science Volume Series. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-55798-503-
3. [page needed]
31. ^ a b Mackintosh, N. J. (1998). IQ and Human Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-852367-3. Lay summary (9 August 2010). [page needed]
32. ^ Flynn, James R. (2009). What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect (expanded paperback ed.).
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External links
• Human Intelligence: biographical profiles, current controversies, resources for teachers
• Classics in the History of Psychology
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 •

What is an IQ Score?
Originally, IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, was used to detect persons of lower intelligence, and to detect
children of lower intelligence in order to place them in special education programs. The first IQ tests were
designed to compare a child's intelligence to what his or her intelligence "should be" as compared to the
child's age. If the child was significantly "smarter" than a "normal" child of his or her age, the child was given
a higher score, and if the child scored lower than expected for a child of his or her age, the child was given a
lower IQ score.
Today IQ testing is used not primarily for children, but for adults. Today we attempt to write tests that will
determine an adult's true mental potential, unbiased by culture, and compare scores to the scores of other
adults who have taken the same test. So today we compare an adult's objective results to the objective
results of other adults, and determine how intelligent each test taker is compared to all other test takers,
instead of comparing test takers to an arbitrary age related standard.

Standard Deviation:
The first step to understanding IQ testing is to understand standard deviation.
Standard deviation is kind of the "avg of the avg," and often can help you find the story behind the data. To
understand this concept, it can help to learn about what statisticians call normal distribution of data.
A normal distribution of data means that most of the examples in a set of data are close to the "average,"
while relatively few examples tend to one extreme or the other.
Let's say you are writing a story about nutrition. You need to look at people's typical daily calorie
consumption. Like most data, the numbers for people's typical consumption probably will turn out to be
normally distributed. That is, for most people, their consumption will be close to the mean, while fewer
people eat a lot more or a lot less than the mean.
When you think about it, that's just common sense. Not that many people are getting by on a single serving
of kelp and rice. Or on eight meals of steak and milkshakes. Most people lie somewhere in between.
If you looked at normally distributed data on a graph, it would look something like this:

The x-axis (the horizontal one) is the value in question... calories consumed, dollars earned or crimes
committed, for example. And the y-axis (the vertical one) is the number of datapoints for each value on the
x-axis... in other words, the number of people who eat x calories, the number of households that earn x
dollars, or the number of cities with x crimes committed.
Now, not all sets of data will have graphs that look this perfect. Some will have relatively flat curves, others
will be pretty steep. Sometimes the mean will lean a little bit to one side or the other. But all normally
distributed data will have something like this same "bell curve" shape.
The standard deviation is a statistic that tells you how tightly all the various examples are clustered around
the mean in a set of data. When the examples are pretty tightly bunched together and the bell-shaped curve
is steep, the standard deviation is small. When the examples are spread apart and the bell curve is relatively
flat, that tells you you have a relatively large standard deviation.
Computing the value of a standard deviation is complicated. But let me show you graphically what a
standard deviation represents...

(Niles Online)
One standard deviation away from the mean in either direction on the horizontal axis (the red area on the
above graph) accounts for somewhere around 68 percent of the people in this group. Two standard
deviations away from the mean (the red and green areas) account for roughly 95 percent of the people. And
three standard deviations (the red, green and blue areas) account for about 99 percent of the people.
If this curve were flatter and more spread out, the standard deviation would have to be larger in order to
account for those 68 percent or so of the people. So that's why the standard deviation can tell you how
spread out the examples in a set are from the mean.
Why is this useful? Here's an example: If you are comparing test scores for different schools, the standard
deviation will tell you how diverse the test scores are for each school.
Let's say Springfield Elementary has a higher mean test score than Shelbyville Elementary. Your first
reaction might be to say that the kids at Springfield are smarter.
But a bigger standard deviation for one school tells you that there are relatively more kids at that school
scoring toward one extreme or the other. By asking a few follow-up questions you might find that, say,
Springfield's mean was skewed up because the school district sends all of the gifted kids to Springfield. Or
that Shelbyville's scores were dragged down because students who recently have been "mainstreamed"
from special education classes have all been sent to Shelbyville.
In this way, looking at the standard deviation can help point you in the right direction when asking why data
is the way it is.
The standard deviation can also help you evaluate the worth of all those so-called "studies" that seem to be
released to the press everyday. A large standard deviation in a study that claims to show a relationship
between eating Twinkies and killing politicians, for example, might tip you off that the study's claims aren't
all that trustworthy.
Here is one formula for computing the standard deviation.
A warning, this is for math geeks only! Writers and others seeking only a basic understanding of stats don't
need to read any further. Remember, a decent calculator and stats program will calculate this for you...

Terms you'll need to know

x = one value in your set of data
(x) = the mean (average) of all values x in your set of data
n = the number of values x in your set of data

For each value x, subtract (x) from x, then multiply that value by itself (otherwise known as determining the
square of that value). Sum up all those squared values. Then multiply that value by this value... 1/(n-1). Then
take the square root of the resulting value. That's the standard deviation of your set of data.
Defining Intelligence
Most people have an intuitive notion of what intelligence is, and many words in the English language
distinguish between different levels of intellectual skill: bright, dull, smart, stupid, clever, slow, and so on. Yet
no universally accepted definition of intelligence exists, and people continue to debate what, exactly, it is.
Fundamental questions remain: Is intelligence one general ability or several independent systems of
abilities? Is intelligence a property of the brain, a characteristic of behavior, or a set of knowledge and skills?
The simplest definition proposed is that intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure. But this
definition does not characterize the ability well, and it has several problems. First, it is circular: The tests are
assumed to verify the existence of intelligence, which in turn is measurable by the tests. Second, many
different intelligence tests exist, and they do not all measure the same thing. In fact, the makers of the first
intelligence tests did not begin with a precise idea of what they wanted to measure. Finally, the definition
says very little about the specific nature of intelligence.
Whenever scientists are asked to define intelligence in terms of what causes it or what it actually is, almost
every scientist comes up with a different definition. For example, in 1921 an academic journal asked 14
prominent psychologists and educators to define intelligence. The journal received 14 different definitions,
although many experts emphasized the ability to learn from experience and the ability to adapt to one's
environment. In 1986 researchers repeated the experiment by asking 25 experts for their definition of
intelligence. The researchers received many different definitions: general adaptability to new problems in
life; ability to engage in abstract thinking; adjustment to the environment; capacity for knowledge and
knowledge possessed; general capacity for independence, originality, and productiveness in thinking;
capacity to acquire capacity; apprehension of relevant relationships; ability to judge, to understand, and to
reason; deduction of relationships; and innate, general cognitive ability.
People in the general population have somewhat different conceptions of intelligence than do most experts.
Laypersons and the popular press tend to emphasize cleverness, common sense, practical problem solving
ability, verbal ability, and interest in learning. In addition, many people think social competence is an
important component of intelligence.
Most intelligence researchers define intelligence as what is measured by intelligence tests, but some
scholars argue that this definition is inadequate and that intelligence is whatever abilities are valued by
one's culture. According to this perspective, conceptions of intelligence vary from culture to culture. For
example, North Americans often associate verbal and mathematical skills with intelligence, but some
seafaring cultures in the islands of the South Pacific view spatial memory and navigational skills as markers
of intelligence. Those who believe intelligence is culturally relative dispute the idea that any one test could
fairly measure intelligence across different cultures. Others, however, view intelligence as a basic cognitive
ability independent of culture.
In recent years, a number of theorists have argued that standard intelligence tests measure only a portion of
the human abilities that could be considered aspects of intelligence. Other scholars believe that such tests
accurately measure intelligence and that the lack of agreement on a definition of intelligence does not
invalidate its measurement. In their view, intelligence is much like many scientific concepts that are
accurately measured well before scientists understand what the measurement actually means. Gravity,
temperature, and radiation are all examples of concepts that were measured before they were understood.

History of Intelligence Testing

Among the first to investigate individual differences in mental ability was a British scientist, Sir Frances
Galton, who compared people based on their awards and accomplishments. This research convinced him
that intelligence was inherited and led to further studies which involved evaluating individual differences in
reaction time and range and specificity of the senses, which have since been shown to correlate with
academic success.
A French psychologist, Alfred Binet, developed a test to accurately predict academic success when the
French government asked him to help them determine which children in the public schools would have
difficulty with formal education. He, and his colleague, Theodore Simon, found that tests of practical
knowledge, memory, reasoning, vocabulary, and problem solving were better predictors of school success
than the sensory tests used by Galton. Subjects were asked to perform simple commands and gestures,
repeat spoken numbers, name objects in pictures, define common words, tell how two objects are different,
and define abstract terms. Similar items are used in today�s intelligence tests.
Assuming that children all follow the same pattern of development but develop at different rates, Binet and
Simon created the concept of mental age, whereby, for example, a child of any age who scored as well as an
average twelve-year-old was said to have a mental age of twelve.
Binet’s test was not widely used in France, but Henry Goddard, director of a school for mentally challenged
students, brought it to the United States, translated it into English, and used it to test people for mental
retardation. Lewis Terman, another American psychologist, adapted the test for use with adults, established
new standards for average ability at each age, and called it the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, because of
his affiliation with Stanford University.
Instead of giving a person’s performance on the Stanford-Binet as a mental age, Terman converted
performance into a single score, which he called the intelligence quotient, or IQ. A quotient is the number
that results from dividing one number by another. The idea of an intelligence quotient was first suggested by
German psychologist, William Stern, in 1912. To compute IQ, Stern divided mental age by the actual,
chronological age of the person taking the test and then multiplied by 100 to get rid of the decimal point. So,
a child who was eight years old and answered the test questions as well as a twelve-year-old scored an
intelligence quotient of 12/8 x 100, or 150. A twelve-year-old who answered the test questions as well as an
average eight-year-old would have an IQ of 8/12 x 100, or 66.
This formula works well for comparing children, but since intelligence levels off in adulthood, it is not
appropriate for adults. A thirty-year-old who answers questions as well as an average twenty-year-old would
have an IQ of only 20/30 x 100, or 66.
So intelligence tests today no longer use the IQ formula. Instead, the score on a modern intelligence test
compares a person�s performance with others his/her own age, while arbitrarily defining the average score
as 100. By convention, most people still use the term IQ to refer to a score on an intelligence test.

Group Intelligence Tests

Before World War I, all intelligence tests were administered on a one to one basis. During the war, a group of
psychologists, led by Robert M.Yerkes, developed two tests, one for English speakers, and one for non-
English speakers or illiterates, which could be administered to groups of recruits to help the army determine
the most effective placement of individuals. Highest scoring recruits were considered for officer training, and
lowest scoring recruits were rejected from service.
Following the war, group tests were more popular. The National Intelligence Test, developed by Terman and
Yerkes, was first used around 1920 to test school children. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was introduced
in 1926 to help colleges and universities screen prospective students.
Today individual and group intelligence tests are widely used in education, the military, and business.

Some of the Consciousness Exercises you will

receive:
Inner Reality
All things are merely concepts within our minds.

Ultimate Self
Intellectually approaching your ultimate self.

Universal Consciousness
A technique for gaining the experience of Universal Consciousness.

Selecting Your Personality

A strong technique for enhancing personality with positivity.

Self Awareness
A strange essay composed of sentient sentences.
Unearthing Emotion
A powerful technique for unearthing deep emotions.

Automatic Creativity
The true, automatic nature of creativity.

Subtle Mind
An extremely powerful technique for enhancing consciousness.

Being God
How do we deal with being jaded?

Choice
Changing handedness temporarily as an exercise in taking control.

Consenting Adult Game

A fun game for adults.

A visit from God

A short visit from God allows the sacredness of life to be appreciated.

Now
"Now" is examined as a concept that is inconceivable.

Inner Witness
The difference between mind and the witness of it.

Sainthood, Step by Step

Starting along a path to perfection.
Summary: Understanding IQ
To understand IQ (Intelligence Quotient), you should first have an idea about what intelligence is
- read various definitions.
IQ scores reflect general capacity for performing intellectual tasks, such as solving verbal and
mathematical problems.
The average IQ score is 100. The standard deviation of IQ scores is 15. So, this means:
• 50% of people have IQ scores between 90 and 110
• 2.5% of people are very superior in intelligence (over 130)
• 2.5% of people are mentally deficient / impaired / retarded (under 70)
• 0.5% of people are near genius or genius (over 140)

IQ - Intelligence Quotient
IQ Resources
Convert SAT or GRE to IQ

Take Braingle's IQ Test

Intelligence is the mental ability to respond to new and changing situations in a purposeful way
that demonstrates comprehension, learning, abstract thinking, and problem solving capabilities.
An IQ is a number that attempts to measure a person's intelligence.
IQ tests are calibrated to give people with average intelligence a score of 100, with numbers
above and below this following a Gaussian curve (see chart). As a result, most people will have
an IQ that clusters around the middle of the graph, with a few people lying at the edges.
Correlation with Success
IQ is often measured because it correlates well
with success in a variety of life events. People
with high IQs generally finish a higher level of
education, have bigger incomes, do better at their
jobs, have lower violent crime rates and have
better health. It should be noted that IQ seems to
be independent of self-assessed levels of
happiness.
IQ Tests
There are a number of standardized tests that
attempt to measure a person's IQ, however there is
some debate about the accuracy and validity of
many of these tests. Several popular tests have been shown to be culturally biased. For example,
someone who grew up in Asia and then took an English based IQ test might receive an
inaccurate score. Some tests claim to correct for this problem.
The first IQ test was developed by a psychologist named Alfred Binet to help identify students
who might need extra help in school. This test was later refined by Stanford Professor Lewis
Terman into the "Stanford-Binet" test, which is still used today to identify gifted students.
The first test to measure intelligence in adults was designed by Dr. David Wechsler and was
called the "Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale" (WAIS). He also created a test for children called
the "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" (WISC). The unique thing about these tests is that
they report separate scores for verbal and performance IQ. This gives the ability to judge
intelligence independent of verbal ability. These tests are still in use today.
Multiple Intelligences
Some scientists argue that intelligence is such a complicated concept that comes in so many
different flavors, that it is impossible to condense it all into a single number. One common
theory, proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner, is that there are eight different types of
intelligence: interpersonal, intrapersonal, kinesthetic, linguistic, logical, musical, naturalistic, and
spatial.
Traditional IQ tests do a good job of measuring linguistic and logical intelligence, but they fail to
measure intelligence in the other areas. For example, a virtuoso piano player or a gifted athlete
may score low on a written IQ test, even though they may have a high intelligence in their area
of expertise.
Good aptitude tests that demonstrate that these different types of intelligence are independent of
each other have yet to be made.
Getting Tested
The most accurate way to get your IQ tested is to take an official IQ test given by a qualified
professional. Many psychologists are trained to administer the test and it shouldn't be too
difficult to locate one in your area.
There are a number of books, that you can find at a bookstore or library, with self-tests that you
can take and score at home. While these are not official tests, they can give you a good idea of
your IQ score. The Amazon.com box to the right may contain some useful books about IQ and
IQ tests.
It is also possible to estimate your IQ from certain standardized test scores. Braingle's IQ
calculator can estimate your IQ from SAT or GRE test scores.
It is also possible to estimate your IQ by taking Braingle's IQ test. This is not an official test, but
it can give you a good idea of what you may score on an offical IQ test.