Koller

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT: KAYAKS

By: Michael Koller

March 3, 2011

Richard Stockton College of New Jeresey

ENVL ISSUES 4300 Spring 2011

Professor Tait Chirenje

1
 Koller

Table of Contents:

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..4

Background……………………………………………………………………………….……..4-5

Origin of raw materials……………………………………………………………………………5

Effects of extracting oil in Nigeria……………………………………………………………...5-8

Transporting the oil……………………………………………………………………………8-10

Processing the raw oil into usable product…………………………………………………...10-11

Transporting the refined product……………………………………………………………..11-12

Pouring the mold...............................................................................................................…...12-13

Transporting the kayak to the house……………………………………………………….…13-14

Finally getting to use the kayak………………………………………………………………….14

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….…14-15

Works cited…………………………………………………………………………………...16-17

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………..18-23

2
 Koller

Abstract

Every activity we have in our daily lives has some sort of environmental impact. Weather

we are taking a shower, driving our cars, reading the newspaper, or as this paper going kayaking,

there are repercussions that ripple through the entire Earth in some way shape or form. In this

paper the process of making a kayak is analyzed. We take a look at the Ocean Kayak Caper

Angler from its very beginning when it is still buried in the Earth. All of the following processes

are analyzed to show how the environment is impacted. First, extracting the oil from the Earth is

looked at focusing on the process in Nigeria. In this section an ozone incinerating process called

gas flaring is described. After the oil is extracted, it must make its way to a refinery via crude oil

tanker. The spill of the Exxon-Valdez is used to show the potential environmental risks taken

during this process. Once the oil safely reaches the refinery, it goes through several processes

which I take a closer look at in its designated section. After the crude oil is separated into its

components, the part used to make polyethylene goes to another refinery. Finally, the plastic is

shipped to kayak manufacturing facility. The environmental costs of shipment are calculated for

the truck that is transporting the goods. Once the polyethylene makes t to the factory, the plastic

is poured into the mold and cooked to take on the form of a kayak. After this stage is complete

all that is left is transporting the finalized kayak from the factory to my house, and then from my

house to the fishing grounds.

3
 Koller

Introduction

Kayaking is a growing hobby cherished among the outdoor and sporting community.

Kayaks are a great source of exercise and are now being used more and more for people to travel

and to fish off of. It is a common conception that kayaking is a great hobby that has no negative

environmental impacts. This is often thought merely because there are not any engines that

require electric or gas fuel to produce harmful products that are released into the environment.

This is true to some extent, but when you look into the process that it takes to produce one of

these boats, it becomes a bit more apparent that kayaks do indeed have an extensive ecological

footprint. In this paper, there will be a focus on the material Polyethylene which is the primary

product used in making the kayak. Polyethylene is a derivative of oil or natural gas, so we will

take a look at the process of extracting the oil from the earth, where the raw materials come

from, what the process is to convert the raw materials into a useable product, and finally

transporting the product.

Background

The product that I based my research on is a kayak produced by Ocean Kayak Inc. The

model looked at is the Ocean Kayak Caper Angler. The Caper Angler has a weight of 20.4kg or

45 pounds. The overall length is 11 feet and the width is 33 inches. The hull of the kayak is made

from a single piece mold of Polyethylene. According to the Ocean Kayak website polyethylene

is the choice material because it is a material that is a good combination of flexibility and

stiffness (Johnson Outdoors, 2011).The material is claimed to be nearly indestructible when used

4
 Koller

in a typical manner. This is an essential quality because some kayaks encounter rough situations

such as scraping rocks or flipping multiple times. The final reason that the material is chosen is

that it is relatively easy to repair if need be.

Origin of raw materials

There are four routes in which ethylene products are derived. The first and most common

is from crude oil, the second is through natural gas, the third through coal, and lastly, a bio-based

route called fermentation and ethanol dehydration (Parets, 2010). To look into the processes of

all four of these derivatives would be out of the scope for this paper, so instead I will focus on

the crude oil aspect.

The United States imports nearly all of the oil the country uses. According to Figure 1 In

December of 2010, the United States imported 344,379,000 barrels of oil. Of the total import,

48,480,000 of those barrels came from the Persian Gulf. When it comes to individual countries,

Saudi Arabia exports the most oil to the United States than any other country with a total of

33,684,000 barrels shipped in December of 2010. In a close second, Nigeria shipped in

33,185,000 barrels in December 2010 (U.S. eia 2010).

Effects of extracting oil in Nigeria

Since Nigeria is one of the leading exporters in oil, we will take a look into the

environmental effects on the local level. The list of environmental costs due to mining oil is

endless, and due to poor documentation, it is nearly impossible to know the total affect over the

5
 Koller

past 50 years that oil industry has been there. There some data however on the loss of habitat, the

decrease in biodiversity, the degradation of soil, pollution to drinking water, destruction of farm

land, and damage to aquatic ecosystems. All of these costs have had a negative effect on the

health of the inhabitants of the areas surrounding the oil drilling both human and non human.

The majority of these negative effects come from a process called “gas flaring”, which is a

leakage from pipelines that are not buried under ground, oil spills, and the waste from the

process being dumped. (Corbett Dabbs,1996) .

Gas flaring is one of the biggest environmental issues concerning the oil extraction in this

region. The other big environmental issue concerning oil extraction is the unfortunate occurrence

of oil spills, which will be covered later in the Transportation section. Gas flaring is done

because the process of extracting oil produces an associated gas which has to be removed. The

removal of this associated gas increases the quality of the oil into what is acceptable for export.

In Nigeria, the way this gas is separated is simply by burning it off hence the name gas flaring.

“According to satellite research, worldwide 168 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared

yearly. Nigeria accounted for 23 billion cubic meters, biggest after Russia. About 13 percent of

global flaring originates From Nigeria” (FOE, 2008). This gas burning is putting out enormous

amounts of pollution into our atmosphere. According to the Fact Sheet on www.Foe.org, 400

million tons of carbon dioxide is emitted from this process yearly. This pollution is equal to one

quarter the amount of gasoline that the United States burns annually. This devastating process

has been going on since the 1960’s. That’s 50 years of dumping millions of tons of carbon

dioxide into the fragile atmosphere. The gas flaring contributes to the greenhouse gasses

produced from our other daily activities adding a toxic mix of nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur

6
 Koller

dioxide. To add to that combination, gas flaring also produces proven cancer causing agents such

as benzapyrene, dioxin, benxene, and toluene.

As mentioned above, these side effects of oil extraction have negative consequences to

the human population surrounding the flare sites. These negative consequences include but are

not limited to respiratory system problems, chronic asthma, disorders with the blood, and most

certainly cancer which are to be expected due to the release of carcinogenic particles into the air

(FOE, 2008). These negative consequences, as imagined, are not only limited to the human

population. These flares have been closely linked to acid rain that sends harmful pollutants into

the waterways. The acid rain also devastates the crops and natural plants occurring in the area.

This happens because the acid rain increases the amount of toxic particles in the soil while

reducing the nutrients that are vital to the growth of the plants. More evidence that this acid rain

is highly destructive is the fact that it is rusting the metal roofs in structures in the surrounding

areas.

To add on to the situation, leaks from the above ground pipelines in Nigeria are a regular

occurrence. Many compare this to the recent BP oil leak in the gulf, but the difference is that it is

happening every year in Nigeria. The difference is that in Nigeria, there is no media coverage, or

no governmental organizations getting involved. This is such a regular occurrence going on for

50 years that it is not even news worthy any more. One such incident occurred in 1998 when

40,000 barrels of crude oil spilled out of one of these pipe lines which were owned by the Mobile

Company. This spill is potentially the largest to occur in Nigeria until its time, and damaged

many of the villagers’ livelihoods by killing many of the fish in the area, and destroying much of

the fishing equipment (Mariner Group, 2005).

7
 Koller

To put this into perspective, we shall compare this to the BP oil spill that happened in the

summer of 2010. Since the oil leakages in Nigeria are not as documented, there is an absence of

data on its effects. It can be implied that the effects would be similar to those from the BP gulf

oil spill. The National Wildlife Federation did a survey on the loss of wild life immediately

following the BP spill. The results were as follows: 5,686 birds dead and 1,316 injured, 3

whales/dolphins dead and 93 injured, 546 sea turtles dead and 520 injured (NWF, 2011). This is

only the data based on animals and carcasses found but many dead carcasses sink to the bottom

and would not have been accounted for. Also, this data does not include the fishes and the many

invertebrates that were affected by this spill. I believe that it would be safe to assume that due to

the estuaries in the gulf that many fish eggs and juvenile fish perished as well. It is apparent the

footprint an incident such as this leaves. To think that an event such as this has been equaled or

surpassed every year for the past 50 years in Nigeria is unnerving. The amount of organisms that

must have been lost over the years is not likely to ever be known, but the long term effects will

be ever apparent.

Transporting the oil

Once the oil has been mined, it must be transported to the United States so that it can be

refined. This is another environmentally costly process. The oil is shipped in crude oil tankers.

These tankers can hold up to 25 thousand tons of oil. These tankers burn an estimated 127 tons

of fuel per day (TSA, 2008). The average time that the tankers are on the open water is 14 days

depending on sea conditions as well as cruising speed. Forget miles per gallon, these ships are

looking at feet per gallon. To put this into perspective, a tanker burns roughly 3,600 gallons an

hour cruising at a speed of 30 miles per hour. If you do the math, that works out to be 44 feet per

8
 Koller

gallon. Imagine if cars were that inefficient, we wouldn’t even want to pull out of our driveways.

Due to the high inefficiency, these tankers would lose money if they used high grade fuel on

their international cruises. Instead, they use a low grade fuel called bunker oil. Bunker oil used to

cost just pennies a gallon, but recently the prices have gone up to about $1.40 per gallon.

This bunker fuel comes from dirty used oil that is unusable to most. When we get our oil

changed in our cars about every three thousand miles, the mechanics put the old oil from our cars

into large 55 gallon drums. This old oil is typically all sold to these shipping companies so that

they can burn it in their large fuel hungry ships. The oil in our car is changed because it is no

longer clean and efficient to us and could damage our engines if we continue to run it. This does

not matter to the large shipping companies. They take this oil and have to heat it to extreme

temperatures in order for it to burn since it is so thick. Because of this, the pollution from this

fuel is so much greater than that of what we burn in our car. “A single cargo ship can produce as

much air pollution as 350,000 cars in an hour. These large, ocean-going ships operate on diesel

engines the size of a single-family home, and most burn “bunker” fuel, which is cheap, but much

more polluting than fuels used to power vehicles” (FOE, 2011) . This has lead to many places

banning these ships from using bunker oil within a certain radius of the coast, California being

one of these locations.

On top of the naturally occurring environmental costs, sometimes tragedy does strike.

When tragedy hits these tankers, it is almost always catastrophic. Take for example the Exxon-

Valdez spill on March 29, 1989 in Alaska. Approximately 11 million gallons of crude oil was

spilled into the water. That is equivalent to 17 Olympic sized swimming pools filled to the top

with raw crude oil. This was 1/5 of the 55million gallons the ship was carrying at the time. The

effects were wide spread; 1300 miles of shore line were hit by the oil, and 200 of these miles

9
 Koller

were considered to be heavily oiled, and traces of the oil were detected in a village 460 miles

away from the incident grounds. With such a large scale spill, it took nearly four summers for the

crews to clean up the best they could, costing Exxon an alleged 2.1 billion dollars in the end.

Despite the efforts and the time gone by, there are still beaches that have oil on them today.

According to the state of Alaska, the death tolls on the wild life were huge. The state estimates

that a quarter million sea birds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 seals, 250 bald eagles, 22 killer whales, and

billions of fish eggs were terminated by the spill. These numbers are only the ones directly

affected by the spill and the extent of indirectly affected organisms is not quantifiable (State of

Alaska). While transporting oil in such large containers is the most efficient, it goes without

saying that huge risks are taken every time one of these tankers set sail.

Processing the raw oil into usable product

The oil that is not spilled, leaked, or burned off must eventually be separated and

processed. This is where the oil becomes more than just oil. During the process, a small

percentage of each barrel of oil becomes plastic. Polyethylene the main material in the kayak is

just one of the many types of plastics that are derived from the separating process. In the refinery

process, according to Figure 2, about 50% of the barrel is made into fuel which is used in our

cars and other gas driven mechanical machines. Another 40% is processed into diesel fuel, jet

fuel, kerosene, and heating oil. That leaves just about 10% to be made into other products such as

plastics (What is Crude, 2004).

As imagined refining, or processing, the oil is a very complicated ordeal. The crude oil is

separated by a series of chemical and physical changes that take place. One commonly used

10
 Koller

method is called distillation. In this process, the crude oil is separated into layers otherwise

known as fractions. This is pretty much all that is done at the refinery. Once the fraction that

contains the plastic is separated, it undergoes a petrochemical process at another processing

plant. At this step, a phase called cracking is undergone. While this is a complicated process, it

can be described as using a catalyst while heating up the fraction to separate the layer even

further. In the cracking process, the molecular bonds are broken so that a higher quality product

can be produced. The main products of this process are ethylene, propylene, and C-4 derivatives.

Once the raw material reaches this stage, it is nearly complete. Depending on weather these

products are going to be made into plastic, nylon, or some other product, it will undergo a few

more specialized steps to get to the final product. Then, it will be ready to be loaded and

transported to a manufacturing plant either by truck, train, or ship again.

Transporting the refined product

The Ocean Kayak manufacturing facility is located in Ferndale, Washington, USA. The

nearest refinery to this location is the Shell Puget Sound Refinery which is located in Anacortes,

Washington. With no traffic, the ride from the refinery to the manufacturing facility takes

roughly one hour. The material would be shipped in a 5,500 gallon container in a tractor drawn

trailer. The trucks used to transport the product get 6.5 miles per gallon on average (NRDC,

2010). Since the truck would be traveling 45 miles one way, that would equal seven gallons of

diesel burned for the one way trip. Another consideration is the tires that wear and tear on the

11
 Koller

truck. On average, depending on the quality, a tire will last about 150 thousand miles. And yes,

there are 18 tires on an 18 wheeler that have to be replaced at some point in time.

On most United States roadways, trucks cannot have a gross weight of more than 80

thousand pounds and since the average 18 wheeler weighs in the area of 36 thousand pounds that

leaves a margin for 44 thousand pounds of product to be shipped. With this being said, one load

would enable the facility to produce about one thousand kayaks since the weight of one unit is 45

pounds. There is no information on how many Caper Anglers are produced yearly by Ocean

Kayak, but since it is one of their cheapest and most popular models, it is safe to assume that

around 6.5 thousand kayaks will be produced annually. This would require about seven

shipments by tractor trailer for this model alone. Ocean Kayak produces 26 different models of

varying weights and sizes so an assumption of at least one tractor trailer shipment a week would

be within safe limits.

Pouring the mold

It has finally reached the point where the material can start to take the shape of a kayak. It

has been a long road up until now, but the process is just now starting to come near the end. The

kayaks are produced one at a time with a relatively simple process compared to all of the

complicated processes thus far. To start, the polyethylene is poured into a mold. Once the

material has been leveled, the mold is sealed and placed into an oven. The oven is about 25 feet

long and cooks the polyethylene at 550 degrees Fahrenheit for 19 minutes. To run an average

household oven at 550 degrees for one hour, it will consume 3.2 kWh of electricity (Best Buy,

2011)

12
 Koller

The average house hold oven has an interior of 5.3 cubic feet. The oven used to melt

the plastic of the kayak measures 23 feet long by six feet wide by six feet tall. This produces 828

cubic feet. According to these measurements it would take 156 times the amount of energy to

heat this oven to 550 as it would your typical household oven. In order to run this oven for one

hour, it would take nearly 500 kWh. Since each kayak only cooks for 19 to 20 minutes, it takes

around 100 kWh per kayak.

Once the kayak is done being melted into the mold, it simply cools and then is removed

from the mold. This is the bulk of the process. Now all the factory has to do is customize it with

the additional options that are desired by the consumer and then package the product. Now that it

is all packaged, the kayak is ready for shipment and one last cross country voyage.

Transporting the kayak to the house

The voyage is almost over at this point. All that’s left is loading the kayak into the truck

and delivering it to my front door. When I ordered my kayak two years ago, Ocean Kayak

informed me that the shipping was going to have to wait until there were enough orders in my

vicinity so that the truck driver could deliver them all in one trip. So from the factory in

Ferndale, Washington to my front door in South Brunswick, New Jersey it is 3,000 miles even.

As discussed in a previous section, the average tractor trailer gets about 6.5 miles per gallon.

Doing the math, it would take the truck driver 462 gallons of diesel fuel to reach my house. This

trip would take approximately two days which means the driver would have to stop at some point

to sleep. This means that additional fuel would be consumed while the driver rests since they do

13
 Koller

not turn off the trucks when they sleep. This has been an enormous process just to get the kayak

to my house for me to use.

Finally getting to use the kayak

Now that I finally have the kayak in my possession it is time to go fishing! I load the

kayak on top of a 1997 Ford Explorer which gets 15 miles per gallon. The fishing destination is

usually in Seaside Heights, New Jersey which is 70 miles from home. To reach the fishing

grounds, my truck would burn 4.5 gallons each way, so a total of 10 gallons by the time I make a

stop at the bait shop and to get food. It is hard to believe that this simple piece of molded plastic

has gone through such a long process just so I can enjoy a relaxing day out on the ocean.

Conclusion

Like I said in the beginning of this journey along the production of a kayak, it is believed
to many that kayaking is a “green” alternative to other ways of getting around on the water. It
is now hard to say that kayaking as a hobby is an environmentally friendly activity. Along the
way, mining the oil has put the environment and humans living in the area at risk due to gas
flares and potential leaks. The transportation of the oil emitted many greenhouse gasses due to
the low quality fuel used to power the tankers and put the world at risk for another disastrous
oil spill that occurs all too often. Then, the refining process consumed some more of the Earth’s
limited energy to separate the crude oil into usable product. Then once again the product was
transported over 3,200 miles in total by truck consuming yet more fossil fuels. The list
continues with the molding process which used a large amount of electricity.

All of these ecologically damaging processes had to occur just to get to the final product.
At least once the kayak is finished; it takes only a minimal amount of energy to run which is
mainly the food I consume to energize my body. In the end taking a kayak out to fish is much

14
 Koller

cleaner and environmentally friendly than taking a boat out, but the ecological footprint made
to get the kayak cannot be forgotten.

15
 Koller

Works Cited

Johnson Outdoors, (2011). Materials & Construction. retrieved from

http://www.oceankayak.com/kayaks/materi als_construction.
html
Internet; accessed 02/15/2011

Parets, O. (2010). The polyethylene chain. Retrieved from

h t t p : / / w w w . r e c yc l e . a b . c a / 2 0 1 0 P r o c e e d i n gs / O t t o P a r e t s. p d f In t e r n e t ;
a c c e s s e d 0 2 / 1 5 / 2 011

U . S . E n e r g y In f o r m a t i o n A dm i n i s t r a t i on , ( 2 0 1 0 ) . U .S . i m po r t s b y c o u n t r y o f
o r i gi n . R e t r i e v e d f ro m
http://www.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htm
Internet; accessed 02/13/2011

Corbett Dabbs, W. (1996, December). Oil production and environmental damage. Retrieved
from http://www1.american.edu/ted/projects/tedcross/xoilpr15.htm Internet; accessed
02/28/2011

Friends of the Earth Nigeria (2008, November). Harmful gas flaring in Nigeria. Retrieved from
http://www.foe.org/pdf/GasFlaringNigeria_FS.pdf Internet; accessed 02/19/2011

Friends of the Earth. Ship emissions. Retrieved from

http://www.foe.org/air-and-water/ship-emissions Internet; accessed 02/11/2011

16
 Koller

Mariner Group (2005). Oil fill history. Retrieved from

http://www.marinergroup.com/oil-spill-history.htm Internet; accessed 01/29/2011

National Wildlife Federation (2011). How does the BP oil spill impact wildlife and habitat?
Retrieved from http://www.nwf.org/Oil-Spill/Effects-on-Wildlife.aspx
Internet; accessed 03/01/2011

Transpacific Stabilization Agreement (2008, July). TSA bunker fuel charges. Retrieved from
http://www.tsacarriers.org/fs_bunker.html Internet; accessed 02/01/2011

State of Alaska. Oil spill facts. Retrieved from http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/facts/qanda.cfm

Internet; accessed 02/23/2011

What is crude oil. (2004). Unpublished manuscript, Sea Grant Program, University of
Delaware, Delaware, Retrieved from
h t t p : / / w w w . c e o e . u de l . e d u / o i l s pi l l / c r u de o i l . h t m l In t e r n e t ; a c c e s s e d
0 2 / 0 1/ 2 0 1 1

N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s D e f e n s e C o u n s e l . ( 20 1 0 , S e pt e m b e r ) . D e l i v e r i n g t h e go o d s
R e t r i e v e d f r o m ht t p: / / d o c s. n r d c . o r g/ e n e r g y/ f i l e s / e n e _ 1 0 0 9 09 0 2 a . p d f
In t e r n e t ; a c c e s s e d 0 2 / 0 1 / 20 1 1

B e s t B u y. ( 2 0 1 1 , F e b r u a r y) R a n g e b u yi n g gu i d e . R e t r i e v e d f r o m
h t t p : / / w w w . b e st b u y. c o m / s i t e / n ul l / nu l l / pc m c a t 1 6 0 3 0 0 0 50 0 1 1 .
In t e r n e t ; a c c e s s e d 0 3 / 0 2 / 20 1 1

17
 Koller

Appendix

FIGURE 1: This chart retrieved from U.S. Energy Information Administration shows where the
United States imported its oil from. The units are thousands of thousands of barrels.

Show Data By:

Product Import Country
Area View
Jul-10 Aug-10 Sep-10 Oct-10 Nov-10 Dec-10 History
All Countries 390,649 382,564 354,478 344,898 332,634 344,379 1981-2010
Persian Gulf 52,045 51,544 50,928 45,850 49,518 48,480 1993-2010
OPEC* 159,468 157,564 153,328 133,117 135,508 143,027 1993-2010
Algeria 16,070 17,519 16,279 13,982 17,162 15,013 1993-2010
Angola 11,583 15,009 12,504 10,031 8,274 9,894 1993-2010
Ecuador 6,370 7,488 6,868 6,302 5,822 5,965 1993-2010
Iraq 13,345 8,697 12,645 4,444 10,210 10,407 1996-2010
Kuwait 5,849 7,769 5,165 6,669 5,086 3,886 1993-2010
Libya 3,401 3,811 1,293 1,101 697 2,060 2004-2010
Nigeria 36,409 30,524 35,221 27,023 25,790 33,185 1993-2010
Qatar 503 1993-2010
Saudi Arabia 32,641 35,078 32,804 34,737 34,222 33,684 1993-2010
United Arab Emirates 210 314 1993-2010
Venezuela 33,590 31,669 30,235 28,828 28,245 28,430 1993-2010
Non OPEC* 231,181 225,000 201,150 211,781 197,126 201,352 1993-2010
Albania 2005-2005
Andorra 2010-2010
Argentina 634 749 1,254 2,079 1,143 2,651 1993-2010
Aruba 2005-2009
Ashmore and Cartier Islands 2009-2009
Australia 1,942 587 1993-2010
Austria 3 1997-2010
Azerbaijan 2,531 2,543 1,632 1,051 1,471 573 1998-2010
Bahamas 108 579 751 485 85 223 1993-2010
Bahrain 1995-2009
Barbados 2003-2003
Belarus 119 30 93 2004-2010
Belgium 2,239 2,465 1,978 2,271 1,895 2,100 1993-2010
Belize 129 130 64 130 129 128 2006-2010
Benin 1995-2009
Bolivia 270 308 292 553 1995-2010
Brazil 10,290 7,778 5,417 5,249 5,952 9,135 1993-2010
Brunei 1998-2008
Bulgaria 2001-2009
Burma 2003-2003

18
 Koller

Cameroon 2,500 1,901 2,294 1,043 1,262 953 1993-2010

Canada 78,567 76,988 74,251 72,698 75,313 84,092 1993-2010
Chad 1,790 753 1,073 2,168 151 1,449 2003-2010
Chile 318 1995-2010
China 385 16 136 244 32 262 1993-2010
China, Taiwan 442 89 5 14 17 141 1995-2010
Colombia 12,525 11,527 10,892 13,072 14,770 7,151 1993-2010
Congo (Brazzaville) 1,371 3,035 2,224 1,802 1,247 1,735 1993-2010
Congo (Kinshasa) 603 1,013 1993-2010
Cook Islands 1999-2001
Costa Rica 1995-2010
Croatia 2001-2002
Cyprus 2006-2008
Denmark 8 62 35 483 1997-2010
Dominican Republic 45 2009-2010
Egypt 22 853 501 572 1993-2010
El Salvador 150 2004-2010
Equatorial Guinea 1,848 2,834 2,047 1,686 465 852 1996-2010
Estonia 1,335 374 796 484 1999-2010
Finland 619 14 503 303 1995-2010
France 1,010 714 716 910 980 2,882 1993-2010
Gabon 995 2,284 2,139 3,147 957 1,448 1993-2010
Georgia, Republic of 208 25 1999-2010
Germany 708 339 9 396 115 74 1993-2010
Ghana 14 201 1996-2010
Greece 39 506 18 1996-2010
Guatemala 259 517 475 277 261 252 1995-2010
Guinea 1997-2007
Hong Kong 69 1998-2010
Hungary 1 1 1995-2010
India 1,462 1,477 1,681 1,503 648 470 1995-2010
Indonesia 123 1,770 500 1,905 1,998 705 1993-2010
Ireland 112 26 2 288 1995-2010
Israel 577 241 190 244 1996-2010
Italy 1,228 1,264 936 1,477 609 1,182 1993-2010
Ivory Coast 600 681 321 278 1995-2010
Jamaica 2002-2010
Japan 196 1,014 449 985 93 51 1993-2010
Kazakhstan 2,348 443 654 75 1,097 665 2000-2010
Korea, North 463 2010-2010
Korea, South 1,886 2,709 2,415 1,842 2,877 1,434 1993-2010
Kyrgyzstan 1996-2010
Latvia 271 75 1999-2010
Liberia 2009-2010
Lithuania 121 1 642 70 305 1999-2010
Malaysia 36 219 5 22 15 319 1993-2010

19
 Koller

Malta 1997-2010
Mauritania 2006-2010
Mexico 39,969 39,745 37,679 41,702 40,903 42,311 1993-2010
Midway Islands 35 2005-2010
Morocco 1997-2008
Namibia 2006-2006
Netherlands 6,555 4,185 1,364 3,308 1,703 2,207 1993-2010
Netherlands Antilles 1993-2010
New Zealand 1995-2008
Niue 2004-2008
Norway 3,689 1,763 1,854 3,449 2,380 791 1993-2010
Oman 3,331 1,026 1995-2010
Pakistan 1996-2008
Panama 1995-2008
Papua New Guinea 1995-2003
Peru 1,676 1,293 2,018 1,175 588 826 1993-2010
Philippines 14 1999-2010
Poland 43 2 26 14 1998-2010
Portugal 434 815 389 523 645 286 1995-2010
Puerto Rico 1995-2005
Romania 124 1996-2010
Russia 22,295 24,371 19,427 20,298 16,579 15,938 1995-2010
Senegal 2006-2009
Singapore 468 33 1993-2010
Slovakia 2006-2006
South Africa 11 7 22 7 12 1995-2010
Spain 2,170 1,779 1,617 870 1,136 893 1993-2010
Spatly Islands 2004-2007
Swaziland 1999-2003
Sweden 1,784 19 52 256 102 654 1993-2010
Switzerland 1997-2008
Syria 13 378 133 395 178 476 1993-2010
Thailand 303 499 399 258 259 214 1993-2010
Togo 1996-2000
Trinidad and Tobago 2,518 2,374 2,714 2,552 2,090 533 1993-2010
Tunisia 1996-2010
Turkey 26 1,098 144 276 49 1 1995-2010
Turkmenistan 178 2002-2010
Ukraine 385 195 204 364 2004-2010
United Kingdom 10,896 8,245 5,350 4,711 5,623 7,309 1993-2010
Uruguay 1997-2009
Uzbekistan 2010-2010
Vietnam 207 390 262 549 248 1995-2010
Virgin Islands (U.S.) 7,410 10,523 9,054 8,369 7,011 5,923 1993-2010
Yemen 1993-2007

20
 Koller

Fi g u r e 2 : t hi s f i gu r e r e p r e s e n t s a b r e a k d o w n o f w h a t U .S . re f i n e r i e s p r o d u c e
f r o m a b a r r e l o f c r u d e o i l . R e t r i e v e d f ro m
http://www.ceoe.udel.edu/oilspill/crudeoil.html

21
 Koller

Fi g u r e 2 a : t h i s f i gu r e s h o w s a n o t h e r b re a k d o w n o f p e t r o l eu m p r o d u c t s . It
go e s i n t o s l i gh t l y m o r e d e t a i l t h a n t h e ab o v e i m a ge . R e t r i e ve d f r o m
http://www.energybulletin.net/node/40533

22
 Koller

A s s u mp t i o n s :

In o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e t h e n u m b e r o f C a pe r A n gl e r s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d b y
O c e a n K a ya k ’ s o n a ye a r l y b a s i s i s us e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c a l c u l a t i o n:
It t a k e s 2 0 m i n ut e s t o p r o d u c e a s i n gl e k a ya k , s o i n a n 8 h ou r w o r k d a y, 2 4
k a ya k s c a n b e p r o d u c e d . I a s s u m e d t h a t t h e k a ya k w o u l d b e p r o d u c e d f i v e
d a ys a w e e k a l l o w i n g 1 2 0 t o b e m a d e . Th e n f o r a n a n n u a l r at e , I a s s u m e d
t h a t t h e k a ya k s w e r e b u i l t 5 2 w e e k s o f t h e ye a r gi v i n g a gr a n d t o t a l o f 6 , 2 40
o r r o u gh l y 6 , 5 0 0 a s s t a t e d i n t h e p a p e r .

T h e o t h e r a s s u m p t i on I m a d e w a s o n t h e o v e n . I t o o k t h e a v e r a g e
e n e r g y u s e o f a s t a n d a r d h o u s e h o l d o v en , a n d a p p l i e d t h os e n u m b e r s t o t h e
v o l u m e o f t h e i nd u st r i a l o v e n u s e d t o pr o d u c e t h e k a ya k s .

23