Name the three stages in the processing of information by the nervous system.

The three stages are

1. Sensory input – Sensory neurons transmits information in the form of nervous impulses
from the receptor to the Central Nervous System.

2. Integration – The brain interprets the information and formulates a coordinated response
to the stimulus.

3. Motor input – Motor neurons transmits information in the form of nervous impulses from
the Central Nervous System to the effectors.

Name the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each.

1. Soma/Cell body – Nucleus + Cytoplasm + Cell Membrane

2. Axon – Transmits nervous impulses away from the body towards another neuron or an
effector

3. Dendron – Transmits nervous impulses towards the cell body

4. Dendrite – Receives nervous impulses from another neuron or a receptor

5. Axon terminal – Forms synapse with another neuron or an effector, so that nervous
impulses can be transmitted to them

Outline the functions of sensory, motor and relay neurons.

1. Sensory neuron – Transmits information in the form of nervous impulses from the
receptor to the Central Nervous System; has a long dendron and a short axon.

2. Motor neuron – Transmits information in the form of nervous impulses from the Central
Nervous System to the effector; has a long axon and numerous short dendrons attached
to the cell body.

3. Relay Neuron – Transmits nervous impulses from

a. the sensory neuron to the motor neuron or the brain

b. the brain to the motor neuron

Define the resting potential of the neuronal membrane.

Resting potential of the neuronal membrane is the voltage or potential difference of a neuron
across its cell membrane. The value is roughly -70mV.

Describe the factors that contribute to the resting membrane potential.

1. Negative ions are trapped inside the neuron

2. Regulation of ions movement across the cell membrane through

a. Na+-K+ pump – actively pumps 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell

b. Sodium leak channels – Allows some Na+ to into out of the cell across an
electrochemical gradient

c. Potassium leak channels – Allows some K+ to flow out of the cell across and
electrochemical gradient
Describe how an action potential is generated and the whole process of action potential.

When a neuron receives a stimulus, certain Na+ channels, such as stretched-gated Na+ channels
open. This causes depolarization, which is the increase in membrane potential as Na+ ions flow into
the cell across an electrochemical gradient. When the membrane potential reaches the threshold
level, an action potential is generated. As a result of this, some voltage-gated Na+ channels open
and allow more and more Na+ ions to flow into the cell, further increasing the membrane potential.
Since the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels is governed by the positive feedback mechanism,
more and more of them open as the membrane potential rises. Therefore, membrane potential of
the neuron increases rapidly due to the massive influx of Na+ ions. At the peak of the action
potential, voltage-gated K+ channels start to open and protein molecules inactivate the voltage-
gated Na+ channels. This causes a decrease in membrane potential as K+ ions flow out the cell
across an electrochemical gradient. The opening of voltage-gated K+ channels is also governed by
the positive feedback mechanism. Hence, membrane potential of the neuron decreases rapidly due
to the massive efflux of K+ ions. Hyper-polarization occurs before the end of an action potential
because voltage-gated K+ channels fail to close in time. The membrane potential of the neuron is
eventually brought back to normal by the Na+-K+ pump, sodium leak channels and potassium leak
channels.

Describe and explain the transmission of an action potential along a myelinated neuron

An action potential along a myelinated neuron is transmitted through salutatory conduction, which
is essentially the “jumping” of electrical impulses from one Node of Ranvier (the unmyelintaed part
of neuron that exists between two myelin sheaths) to another. This is because a myelinated
neuron has its dendron and axon covered with myelin sheaths, which make these parts electrically
insulated. Electrical impulses cannot be generated in these areas.

Describe how a nerve impulses travels across a chemical synapse.

When action potential reaches the axon terminal of a pre-synaptic neuron, the voltage-gated Ca+
channels open and allow Ca+ ions to flow into the cell. This causes the vesicles containing
neurotransmitters to bind to the pre-synaptic membrane. As a result, neurotransmitters are
released into the synaptic cleft through the exocytosis process. These neurotransmitters then
move towards the post-synaptic membrane and bind to the receptors on the ligand-gated channels.
Ligand-gated channels are thus triggered to open. The opening of these channels may allow the
movement of K+, Na+ or Cl- ions across the cell membrane, depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the
membrane potential in the process. If sufficient ligand-gated Na+ open, then action potential will
be generated in the post-synaptic neuron.

Describe the reflex arc and the reflex action.

1. Reflex arc is the shortest possible pathway traveled by nervous impulses from the
receptor to the effector. It usually composes only 3 neurons: the sensory neuron, relay
neuron and motor neuron.

2. Reflex action is the spontaneous, rapid reaction to specific stimulus without conscious
 control.

Describe the route taken by nervous impulses in a voluntary action

Nervous impulses are generated in the brain and transmitted by relay neurons down the spinal
cord. In the grey matter of the spinal cord, these nervous impulses are transmitted by a relay
neuron to a motor neuron across a synapse. These nervous impulses then travel in one or a few
motor neurons towards the effector across another synapse. The effector carries out the
volutary action.

Differentiate between voluntary and reflex actions.

Voluntary action Reflex action

Response are only generated in the brain Response are generated in the spinal cord or
the brain
Does not require a stimulus Requires a stimulus
Consciously done Unconsciously done

State that the reflex action is the simplest form of response in higher animals, which protects
them from harm and injury.

State that conditioned reflex action is acquired from past experience or learning with stimulus
which is originally ineffective in producing response.

State that the nervous system – brain, spinal cord, neurons serve to coordinate and regulate body
functions.

The spinal cord acts as the central communication conduit between the brain and the rest of the
body. Millions of nerve fibers within the cord carry motor information from the brain and the
cord itself for the delivery to the muscles, while other fibers convey sensory information from
the body to the brain. The brain contains the homeostatic centre that keep the body functioning
smoothly, sensory centre that integrate data from the sensory organs, and centre of emotions and
intellect. The brain also sends out motor commands to muscles around our body when necessary.

Identify the parts of the spinal cord (as seen in cross section), and be able to locate the positions
of sensory, motor and relay neurons, within the spinal cord.

Compare the structures and functions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system.

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Contains the brain and the spinal cord Contains the cranial nerves from the brain,
spinal nerves from spinal cord, and receptors

Distinguish between the functions of the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the
somatic nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System

Adjusts an organ’s activity to a suitable level. Neurons of somatic nervous system carry
Our body usually operates at intermediate signals to and from skeletal muscles, mainly in
levels. response to external stimuli.
Regulate the internal environment by
controlling smooth and cardiac muscles and the
organs and glands of the digestive,
cardiovascular, excretory and endocrine
systems.
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division
Primes the body for Preparing the body
activities that gain for intense, energy-
and conserve for the consuming activities,
body (“rest and such as fighting,
digest”). fleeing or competing
in a strenuous game
(“fight or flight”)
Concerned in
conservation of
energy and the
replacement of body
reserves.