Introduction to

Water Clarification
Questions & Answers
Understanding your
water clarification program?

Many coagulants, flocculants, coagulant aids and methods of application are

available to improve traditional water clarification techniques. In a well-
planned clarification program, the factors to be considered are:
• Quality fluctuations in the raw water
• Flow variations
• Water temperature
• Quality requirements of the finished water
• Clarification solids disposal requirements
• Choice of best suited coagulants and flocculants
• Chemical dosage levels
• Chemical feed points
• Mixing, flocculating and settling conditions
• pH for coagulation

The following pages contain questions and answers of value if you are
interested in achieving optimum water clarification results. For the beginner,
the questions are a comprehensive outline of coagulation theory and
practice. For the expert, they will provide a quick review of modern
clarification technology. For the persons involved in the everyday process
involving the clarification operation, this will be a ready reference with
straightforward answers to specific questions. The questions are classified in
six sections providing easy reference.
• COAGULATION THEORY
• COAGULANTS, FLOCCULANTS AND COAGULANT AIDS
• CLARIFICATION EQUIPMENT
• MIXING AND FEEDING OF CHEMICALS
• PRECIPITATION SOFTENING
• WATER TREATMENT SOLIDS HANDLING

2
COAGULATION THEORY
Figure 1: Molecular Bridging
When is water clarification
advisable?
All surface water supplied to
potable water systems should be
clarified and disinfected. Non-
potable waters require clarification
when turbidity and other
contaminants present are a
contributing cause of:
• Maintenance costs for cleaning,
repair and replacement of supply
lines and water using equipment.
• Inefficient heat transfer in process
cooling water systems.
• Inadequate water supply
throughout the system due to
fouling and plugging of supply
lines.
• Fouling and inefficient operation
of ion exchange equipment.
• Product rejects due to staining or
off-color appearance.
Water clarification involves the
coagulation and removal of
suspended contaminants by a
combination of chemical and
mechanical methods.
What is turbidity?
Turbidity is a suspension of particles
in H2O that cause light to be
scattered.
Most natural turbidity in surface
water is essentially a suspension of
colloidal clay particles, which have
become dispersed into the water by
the erosive action of run-off waters
on soils. Colloidal suspensions of
clay particles are generally stable,
possessing negative charges, and will
not settle unless chemically treated.
What is coagulation?
Coagulation is a chemical and
physical process wherein the
negative charges on colloidal
turbidity particles are neutralized by
positively charged (cationic)
3
chemicals, permitting them to
collide, forming larger particles that
eventually settle. This phenomenon
is referred to as colloid
destabilization as well as
coagulation.
How is coagulation
accomplished?
Coagulation is normally
accomplished in three steps:
1. Initial rapid mixing of coagulation
chemicals with the water to be
treated.
2. Neutralization of particle surface
charges.
3. Collisions between neutralized
particles, caused by "rapid mix"
energy input.
What is a coagulant?
A coagulant is a low molecular
weight chemical, which, in solution,
furnishes ionic charges opposite to
those of colloidal turbidity particles
in the water. Generally, coagulants
are positively charged (cationic) and
react with negatively charged
particles. These coagulants may be
inorganic (Aluminum or Iron) or
organic polycations. The primary
function of a coagulant is to
neutralize charge.
What is flocculation?
Flocculation consists of the
entrapment of neutralized particles
into a larger solids network called
floc. Although coagulation is a
chemical reaction, the gathering in
or adsorption of suspended solids is
largely a mechanical process. In
addition, molecular bridging (see
Figure 1) may be enhanced by the
use of flocculants. In any case,
flocculation causes considerable
increase in the size and density of
coagulated particles, resulting in
faster settling floc particles.
What is a flocculant?
Flocculants are very high molecular
weight chemicals designed to bridge
particles and form larger particles.
The primary function of a flocculant,
is to provide an effective bridging
mechanism between particles.
These chemicals form larger floc
particles that settle through the
water while adsorbing the particles
of "coagulated" turbidity. By creating
larger and heavier flocs, flocculants
speed the settling process,
facilitating better clarification at
higher throughput rates.
What is a coagulant aid?
Although sometimes used
synonymously with "flocculant", a
coagulant aid is something that aids
the coagulation process. As defined
here, a coagulant aid is a finely
divided particle, which may be
surface modified to varying degrees.
Coagulant aids are added to provide
increased and more effective
particle collisions during the initial
neutralization step. Although these
inorganic materials may be
compared to the inorganic metal
salts in terms of solids, they provide
a different function and don't have
some of the disadvantages, such as
the formation of the hydrous,
polymerized floc structure which
can give rise to dewatering
difficulties in later solids handling.
These coagulant aids provide an
effective means of building a clarifier
solids bed where turbidity
conditions are low, and in providing
the additional solids necessary to
enhance the clarification process
when alum and other inorganic
coagulants are being replaced.
4
What causes the color found
in surface waters?
Color in water is usually due to
organic material such as tannin,
lignin and related compounds
leached from leaves or other
vegetation. When insolublized to a
colloidal state, these organics usually
posses negative surface charges. In
some cases, color is caused by the
insolubilization of dissolved iron and
manganese.
How can color be effectively
removed?
By insolubilizing, then coagulating
the negatively charged color
particles with a suitable cationic
coagulant, followed by settling
and/or filtration. Because of the
wide variation in the nature of color
bodies this insolubilization may
occur at varying pH, though the
optimum pH is usually on the
acidic side.
How can iron and manganese
be removed?
Both of these metals are soluble
only in the reduced form. When
oxidized, they precipitate out of
solution. Therefore, oxidation prior
to clarification is required for
removal. Iron is normally oxidized
readily by chlorination or aeration.
Manganese and some organically
bound iron must be oxidized by
stronger agents such as potassium
permanganate, chlorine dioxide and
ozone. Often lime is also used to
remove iron and manganese it
works because of the increased
oxidizing power of dissolved oxygen
at higher pH. Iron and manganese
both are oxidized more readily
under higher pH conditions.
What is in-line filtration?
One of the more recent
developments in water clarification
is the application of a coagulant
and/or a filter aid to the water
directly before the filter bed. In this
case conventional settling is not
employed, thereby eliminating the
need for chemicals required to
promote efficient settling. Although
for industrial plants clarification
basins may not always be required
for potable water, the clarification
COAGULANTS, FLOCCULANTS AND COAGULANT AIDS
What coagulants are
commonly used in water
clarification?
There are three main categories of
coagulant used in water clarification.
These are Inorganic, Inorganic/
Organic blends, and Organic
polymers. Some common examples
of these products are:
Inorganic
• Alum (Aluminum Sulfate)
• Polyaluminum Chloride
• Sodium Aluminate
• Ferric Chloride or Ferric Sulfate
Inorganic/Organic blends are
combinations of one or more of the
above inorganic products with one
of the polycationic polymers in one
product.
Organic
• Poly DADMAC
• epi-DMA
Note: These would both be considered
polycationic polymers.
Most of the Inorganic Coagulants
are widely used and have been for
many years. Their disadvantage is
that they produce large volumes of
solids. The blended Inorganic/
Organic products and the straight
organic products have overcome
basins are still desired to provide
the contact time necessary for
effective chlorine sterilization of
bacteria and viruses. The
applicability of inline filtration will
depend directly on:
1. The turbidity of the raw water
2. The finished water turbidity
requirements
For industrial plants, whose process
water quality requirements may not
be as stringent as those for
this disadvantage by producing
dense solids with a higher content
of natural suspended solids.
How do polyelectrolytes
function as coagulants and
flocculants?
In clarification of turbid waters, low
molecular weight cationic
polyelectrolytes (polycations)
function as primary coagulants.
They are positively charged and will
neutralize the negative surface
charges on particles of turbidity thus
permitting subsequent
agglomeration. High molecular
weight nonionic (no charge), anionic
(negatively charged) and cationic
(positively charged) polyelectrolytes
function as flocculants, and they can
be applied along with a cationic
coagulant material that neutralizes
the charge on the turbidity particle.
How does the clay-type
coagulant aid benefit
clarification?
These products are very fine
particles of high surface area and
practically no charge. This allows
them to enter into collisions with
particles neutralized by the
5
municipalities, this provides a great
advantage, with significant chemical
and equipment savings. In-line
filtration has also proved effective
for color removal providing the
color has been destabilized prior to
filtration.
coagulant so that the floc formation
rate is increased and the adsorption
of some of the soluble contaminants
is enhanced. Due to the relatively
high specific gravity of these
coagulant aids the density of the
resulting floc is increased, thereby
permitting more rapid and complete
settling.
As an aid to the replacement of the
metal coagulants, these inorganic
coagulant aids can be effective at
dosages much lower than the
original inorganic coagulant. In
addition, the solids formed by the
coagulant aid are often easier to
dewater and can result in a higher
percent dryness solids for landfilling.
What effect does pH have on
the action of coagulants?
PH is a critically important factor
when coagulation is based on
inorganic coagulants, and the
optimum pH varies with the
inorganic coagulant employed.
Often, the optimum pH for
coagulation is not consistent with
the production of stable, non-
corrosive water, necessitating post
adjustment of pH with alkaline
chemicals.
Are the organic polymers
greatly affected by pH?
They are neither affected by the pH
nor do they affect the pH of the
water they are added to. The
polycationic coagulants function
over a wide pH range from about
4.5 to slightly over 10. Some
polycationics are even effective up
through the high pH encountered
during complete lime softening. The
high molecular weight organic
flocculants also function over a wide
pH range, but each type normally
performs most effectively in a
smaller range. Low to neutral pH
favors nonionic to slightly anionic
flocculants, while higher pH seems
to favor the more moderately
anionic flocculants.
What effect does low water
temperature have on
clarification and softening?
Cold water slows chemical
precipitation reactions. The
standard rule is that chemical
reaction rates are doubled for every
18°F (-7°C) increase in temperature.
For example, retention time for
32°F (0°C) water should be twice
that of 50°F (10°C) water or four
times that for 68°F (20°C) water.
The newer organic polymers are,
however, less vulnerable to
temperature influence than are the
traditional inorganic coagulants,
because they do not enter into
chemical reactions (hydrolysis) in
order to function. The kinetics
involved in settling and thermal
variations still apply.
When are organic polymers
most valuable in the
coagulation process?
1. When the solids generated by
inorganic metal salts cannot be
disposed of economically.
6
2. When desired water quality
cannot be obtained with inorganic
coagulants alone.
3. When high water demand
requires that clarification
equipment be operated in excess
of its rated capacity.
4. When low temperatures slow
chemical reactions and floc
formation.
How can the correct
coagulation program be
determined?
Jar testing is a practical, convenient
and reliable procedure commonly
used to determine the best
combination of chemicals to treat a
particular water. Jar tests will
estimate the correct chemical
program and the dosage range. The
final operating dosage levels must be
determined with full-scale plant
equipment. They will normally be
somewhat different than the levels
indicated by jar testing.
How should jar tests be
conducted?
1. Fill the proper number of
breakers (jars) to a given volume
level using a fresh sample of test
water. For example, if using a
conventional gang stirrer and
1500-milliliter beakers, fill them
to the 1-liter mark with the test
water. If reagents are made up at
a concentration of 1 gram per
liter (0.1%), then 1 milliliter of
chemical added to the 1 liter raw
water sample would equal 1 part
per million (ppm). If pounds per
million gallons are preferred, 1
ppm equals 8.33 pounds per
million gallons. If other volumes
are used instead of a liter, the
solution strength or the amount
added can be varied to meet
these conditions.
2. In the preliminary series, use the
present plant program as a basis
(control dosage) against which
the other chemical combinations
in the remaining beakers are to
be compared. For extremely cold
or extremely hot conditions, a
constant temperature water bath
may be required in order to
simulate actual conditions.
3. Add the chemicals to the water in
the beakers in varying
combinations and dosage levels.
In certain situations the chemicals
should be added to the water under
agitation, while in others it is
preferable to add them before
starting agitation. The specific
procedure will depend upon the
time lag between treatment of the
first and last beakers of the set,
reaction rate of the coagulant, etc.
A comparison of both procedures
will quickly establish the optimum
method. The most valuable results
will be obtained when the
comparative chemicals are added at
the same time.
If mixing time is one of the items
under consideration, then the
coagulant can be added using
CLARIFICATION EQUIPMENT
What types of clarification
equipment are most
commonly used today?
Generally, one of three types:
1. conventional
2. up-flow, solids-contact
3. up-flow, solids-contact, solids-
recirculation
How do conventional
clarifiers operate?
Horizontal units employ the
principle of conventional water flow
as opposed to the up-flow design
predetermined delay times from
one beaker to the next.
4. In all cases, it is best to simulate
plant mixing conditions in order
to predict the results of the plant
evaluation subsequent to testing.
Plants will vary widely in the
amount of rapid mixing which can
be obtained. For general
considerations, a typical mix cycle
for jar testing may be as follows:
0-5 minutes at 80-100 rpm
2-15 minutes at 30-40 rpm
5-25 minutes settling
5. In order to determine which are
the best beakers or jars, observe
found in solids-contact type
installations. In conventional types,
the coagulant chemicals are
introduced into a primary rapid mix
chamber where they receive
contact with particles of turbidity to
neutralize charges and form small
floc. From the rapid mix chamber
the treated water flows into a
flocculation chamber equipped with
slow moving paddle-type agitators.
In this chamber slow gentle agitation
allows floc particles to grow. After
leaving the flocculation chamber, the
water flows into a settling basin
7
the floc size and formation during
agitation, then discontinue
agitation and observe settling rate
and clarity of supernatant.
6. Run additional series, varying
chemical combinations and
dosage levels, making certain that
only one variable is changed at a
time in a given beaker. Continue
to observe the floc formation,
settling rate and clarity.
7. From all of the beakers, choose
the best-suited chemical program
based upon cost performance
and/or results desired for the
particular application in question.
where the floc settles to the
bottom. Solids accumulations are
removed manually by mechanical
scrapers with timer-controlled blow
down, and in some cases, solids
recirculation. From the settling basin
the clarified water flows to the
filters. (See Figure 2.)
How do up-flow solids-
contact clarifiers operate?
In an up-flow, solids-contact type
unit, influent water and coagulation
chemicals are combined in a central
reaction zone, then mixed by
 Flash
Mixer Straight Line Straightline
Slow Mixer Sludge Collector
Influent Effluent
Water
Level
Raw
Water

Mixer Flocculation Settling

Tank Tank Tank
Sludge
Drawoff Pipe

Figure 2: Conventional Clarifier

mechanical or hydraulic agitation step intimately contacts the water What are the requirements
and discharged through previously with the solids blanket, where for properly operating a
formed sediment or solids. The turbidity is removed by adsorption, solids-contact unit?
water flows up through the solids as well as settling.
First, the water must be evenly
blanket where fine particles are In older conventional and up-flow distributed and the effluent evenly
removed by adsorption onto the units, solids may be returned to the withdrawn so as to avoid short-
floc particles forming the solids bed. raw water line to provide this circuiting and solids carryover.
The solids "blanket", containing the "seeding" effect. (See Figure 4.) Second, the chemicals must be
chemical precipitates, is kept in
proportioned accurately and must
suspension by combined mechanical
be fed to the unit to affect a
agitation and hydraulic flow. In a
minimum time delay before new
properly operated unit, a distinct
upper surface of the solids blanket
can be seen through the
supernatant water. As the clarifier Chemical
Feeds Motor
cross-sectional area in the solids
filter zone increases, the velocity of Water Line
the upward flow of the water Clarified
Water
decreases, and particles separate
from the water leaving the upper
Rapid
portion clear. (See Figure 3.) Mix
Raw
How do up-flow solids- Water
contact, solids-recirculation Impeller Sludge
clarifiers operate? Blanket
Level
In solids-contact, solids-recirculation
units two beneficial procedures are
employed, namely, the addition of Slow
coagulants to the primary mix Mix
chamber (reaction zone) in the
presence of previously formed floc,
and the passage of water through an Sludge
Scraper
expanded solids blanket. The first Sludge Draw-Off
step utilizes the helpful action of
return solids to furnish "seed" for
new floc formation and the second Figure 3: Up-flow solids-contact clarifier

8
 Drive
Chemical Chemical
Orifice

Secondary Mixing
Effluent Clarified Water & Reaction Zone Draft Tubes

Clear Water Escape

Rotor-Impeller Surface

Slurry Pool
Raw Water
Sample
Cock Concentrator Return Flow
Zone
Primary Mixing & Reaction Zone
Hood
Sludge
Discharge

Blow-Off and Drain

Figure 4: Up-flow solids-contact, solids-recirculation clarifier

precipitates contact the old. Third,
the agitator must properly suspend
all slurry in the reaction zone. The
maximum degree of agitation should
be applied at the start of the path of
water flow in the primary reaction
zone and gradually diminish as the
flow proceeds towards the clarifying
zone. In addition, slurry of high
density is desirable in the reaction
zone. The clarifying zone should be
designed so that the flow will assure
complete separation of the water
from the slurry in a minimum space.
What are the most common
causes of floc carryover?
One or a combination of the
following ordinarily causes floc
carryover:
1. Short circuiting
2. Excessive rise rates
3. Low density floc, due to wrong
coagulant choice or insufficient
dosage
4. Air entrainment
5. Thermal currents
6. Flow surges due to rapid rate
change
How can short-circuiting be
corrected?
Short-circuiting in a clarifier may
often be corrected by modifying the
baffles to extend the water flow
path through the clarifier, and by
seriating the take-off weir edges on
the clarifier.
How can excessive rise rates
in a clarifier be corrected?
If the equipment is grossly
undersized for the quantity of water
treated, the most satisfactory
solution generally is installation of
additional clarifier capacity.
If, on the other hand, excessive
throughput and rise rates occur on
an intermittent basis, the cause of
these surges can often be eliminated
or minimized by installation of
adequate finished water clear well
storage or "equalization” tanks.

9
What can be done to increase
floc density?
Floc density usually can be increased
by adjustment in coagulation
chemical dosages, use of a suitable
coagulant aid and/or flocculant, and
varying the rapid mix speed.
What is the effect of air
entrainment on clarifier
operation and how can it be
eliminated?
If excessive air entrainment is
present, air bubbles attach
themselves to floc particles, buoying
the floc particles, buoying the floc
and thereby causing floc carryover.
Air bubbles are usually not visible on
the floc. Excessive air can be
eliminated by minimizing air in-
leakage in transfer pump seals and
by installation of an elevated
deaeration tower ahead of the
clarifier.
What effect do thermal
currents have on clarifier
operation?
Thermal convection current usually
occurs when the water temperature
is appreciably higher or lower than
the ambient temperature, or when
the water temperature fluctuates
rapidly. Currents of this nature
generally cause short-circuiting,
accompanied by a disruption of the
solids blanket, turbid effluent water
and floc carryover.
How can flow surges be
controlled?
Flow surges are controlled by
making rate changes more slowly
and less frequent. This can be
accomplished only when adequate
finished water clear well storage is
available and by installing adequate
“equalization” tanks.

MIXING AND FEEDING OF CHEMICALS

What important
considerations must be taken
into account when preparing
chemical solutions?
1. The solution strength of the
chemical employed.
2. The type and degree of agitation
required, and time to dissolve the
chemical.
3. The characteristics of the
chemical solution.
What problems can result
from improper dissolving of
chemicals?
1. The applied chemical dosage will
not be completely "available",
adversely affecting clarification
results.
2. Incompletely dissolved chemicals
will cause plugging of feed lines
and pumps, which will result in
excessive wear on pump packing
and impellers.
3. Higher treatment costs.
What quality water should be
used to dissolve water
treatment chemicals?
The water used for dissolving
treatment chemicals should be the
best quality available. It should be
free of turbidity and have low
hardness. This is especially true
when making solutions of softening
chemicals or alkaline chemicals,
which have the ability to soften the
solution water.
It is best to use the water the
customer will use in the application.
Service water quality can change
from plant to plant and can have an
impact on product performance.

10
What problems can result
from poor quality dilution
water?
If the dilution water contains
turbidity, or if the action of a high
concentration of softening chemical
causes precipitation to occur, the
resulting turbidity can cause fouling
of the chemical feed lines or
plugging of valves and pumps.
Additionally, prefloccing of polymer
chemicals often occurs when turbid
water is used for making solutions,
or for dilution, reducing their
effectiveness.
At what point in the mixing
tank should the chemicals be
added?
For best dispersion, chemicals
should be added directly into the
vortex formed by the agitation, or
to a chemical disperser, where
available.
What factors determine the
size of the solution tank for
mixing coagulation chemicals?
Size is determined by the maximum
amount of chemical, which will be
fed, by the frequency of recharging
desirable, and by the solution
strength recommended for the
particular chemical being employed.
How can dry coagulant aids
be effectively dissolved or
slurried?
Most dry coagulant aids should be
added slowly to the vortex in the
mixing tank and high shear agitation
should be provided to initially wet
all of the particles. In the case of
long chain "synthetic" polymers,
slow addition through a disperser is
desired to initially wet and disperse
the individual particles. High shear
agitation may be employed for
short-term duration, but must be
carefully controlled to prevent
breakdown of the polymer
structure. Reduced speed
mechanical agitators (200-400 rpm)
are ideal.
What are the recommended
solution strengths for dry
organic coagulant aids?
Most "natural" organic polymer
coagulant aids can be effectively
made up in solution strengths as
high as twenty percent. Because of
the higher viscosities of long chain
"synthetic" polymers, however, it is
recommended that these materials
be made up in solutions of 0.5 to
0.25 percent. Specific
recommendations are shown on
individual product data sheets.
How may optimum chemical
feed points be determined?
Ordinarily by actual operation and
observation. Chemicals should be
fed at various points in the initial
stages of the clarifier in order to
determine the optimum points of
application. For hard-to-coagulate
waters, a high degree of initial
agitation may be desirable for
coagulation. In such cases, addition
should be ahead of the clarifier at a
point of high agitation, for example,
at the suction of an inlet pump.
Generally, coagulants and coagulant
aids are added first, followed by
flocculants into mild or later rapid
mix sections.
11
PRECIPITATION SOFTENING
What is precipitation
softening?
Precipitation softening is the
insolubilization and precipitation of
hardness constituents from water
by chemical means. These
constituents include the compounds
of calcium, magnesium, iron,
aluminum and manganese. The
major constituents normally
removed are the calcium carbonate
and magnesium hardness.
What takes place during the
softening reaction?
The most troublesome impurities
found in water are removed
effectively by chemical reactions
with lime, soda ash and sodium
hydroxide as follows:
1. Calcium hardness precipitated as
calcium carbonate and
magnesium hardness precipitated
as magnesium hydroxide.
2. Bicarbonate alkalinity converted
to the carbonate form and then
removed as calcium carbonate.
3. Silica, removed by forming an
insoluble complex when it reacts
with magnesium hydroxide.
4. Turbidity from suspended solids,
removed by sedimentation and
filtration. Colloidal turbidity
present in water in appreciable
amounts is removed by the
addition of a coagulant prior to
softening chemicals.
What are the two major
types of precipitation
softening?
"Cold process" is the term used
when softening reactions are carried
out at normal water temperatures.
When water is heated well above
the normal temperature, the term
"hot process" is used. The hot
process removes hardness more
completely than the cold.
12
What is complete softening?
It is the removal of both carbonate
and non-carbonate (sulfate,
chloride, etc.) hardness
constituents.
What is partial softening?
It is the removal of carbonate
hardness only, which is present as
calcium and magnesium
bicarbonate.
What is the distinction
between carbonate hardness
and non-carbonate hardness?
Bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium are known as carbonate
or "temporary" hardness. The term
"temporary" is used because boiling
drives off carbon dioxide and
precipitates carbonates.
Non-carbonate or permanent
hardness includes the sulfates,
chlorides, and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium.
Why is sodium aluminate
employed in the softening
process?
Sodium aluminate will dissolve to
form caustic soda and a complex
aluminum floc. This floc forms a
base upon which the magnesium
hydroxide adsorbs, making it more
dense, improving its settling
characteristics and removing more
magnesium. Since silica removal
corresponds with magnesium
removal, greater silica reduction will
also result. In addition, commercial
sodium aluminate contains free
(excess) caustic, thus requiring less
lime and soda ash (in amounts
equivalent to the caustic originally
present in the aluminate and that
formed by the dissolution of the dry
aluminate).
What additional benefits does
sodium aluminate provide?
1. Removes low levels of turbidity
by neutralizing the charges on
raw water colloids.
2. Provides a denser floc bed-giving
rise to clearer supernates.
3. Reduces the amount of solids
generated due to the reduced
usage of lime when compared to
using the acid salt coagulants.
4. Does not add non-carbonate
hardness as alum and iron do.
Can high molecular weight
flocculants replace sodium
aluminate in softening
applications?
If sodium aluminate is being used as
a means of providing dense solids
and clear supernate only, then the
high molecular weight flocculants
could be used in place of sodium
aluminate. However, high molecular
weight flocculants will not provide
the other benefits outlined above.
The flocculants will greatly improve
the solids concentration in the bed
while allowing higher rise rates and
less carryover.
How can water hardness be
determined?
By Several methods, including:
1. Gravimetric analysis for calcium
and magnesium.
2. Titration test.
3. Soap test.
Gravimetric analysis is usually
restricted to the lab for precise
work. The titration test and
occasionally the soap test have
proven most popular because of
their simplicity.
What do P and M alkalinity
measure?
Alkalinity is usually expressed in
carbonate, bicarbonate, and
hydroxide forms. Standard practice
assumes that:
1. Titration to P (Phenolphthalein)
end point determines all
hydroxide and ½ of carbonate
alkalinity.
2. M (Methyl Orange) titration
measures the sum of the
bicarbonate, carbonate, and
hydroxide alkalinity.
Is lime-softened water stable?
No. It is supersaturated, particularly
with calcium carbonate. Going
through the filters, it will produce
sand grain growth due to the
deposition of crystalline carbonate
on the sand. Distribution systems
can become encrusted, hot water
systems will scale rapidly and
maintenance will be increased.
How may lime-softened
water be stabilized?
With additional settling time, more
complete solids recirculation to
build more surface area in the
primary reaction zone (allowing
more complete and effective
reaction) and maintaining a higher
solids level in upflow units (with
careful control to prevent
carryover), the reaction will be
more complete by the time the
water is filtered. In addition, a
reduction in pH provided by
recarbonation (CO2 addition) or
the addition of acid will convert
carbonates to bicarbonates and
provide stable water. For even
better protection, the addition of
1-2 ppm of scale control chemical is
recommended except where
chemicals may interfere with the
process.
13
WATER TREATMENT SOLIDS HANDLING
What types of solids are
formed as a result of water
treatment?
There are three types of solids
generated by water treatment.
These vary from natural to heavily
chemical. They are:
1. SILT, as a result of the settling of
suspended matter in pre-
sedimentation ponds or basins.
2. CLARIFICATION SOLIDS,
formed by silt, destabilized clay
turbidity and clarification
chemicals.
3. SOFTENING SOLIDS, produced
by the removal of hardness
through precipitation softening.
Can the solids be returned to
the water source?
For many years this is what has
been done. Today, however, most
states have restricted, or eliminated
simple discharge of clarification
solids.
The solids, containing turbidity,
organic materials, metal salts
(aluminum or iron) or precipitated
hardness, will have to be dewatered
and disposed of as landfill or by
other non-polluting methods.
Can the solids be dewatered
easily?
In some cases. For example,
precipitation-softening solids will
dewater fairly easily due to the
crystalline nature of the calcium
carbonate. If magnesium removal is
being practiced, organic flocculants
are required to dewater to a clear
supernate as the Mg (OH)2 is very
light in weight.
Solids formed from clarification
using aluminum or iron salts present
a more difficult problem. Where
high turbidities are being treated,
there is sufficient clay incorporated
to make dewatering a little more
feasible. Where turbidities are low,
most of the solids consist of the
hydrous oxide of the coagulant
(alum or iron) itself and are difficult
to concentrate with conventional
equipment.
What treatment methods can
be used to dewater solids?
In any treatment method, the first
thing, which must be done, is to
produce as concentrated solids as
possible. When one considers the
amount of solids present in the
tremendous quantity of backwash
water used to wash filters, it is
readily apparent that it would be
impractical to handle that volume
efficiently. Also, when regular blow
down is accomplished from settling
basins on a frequent basis the solids
will be somewhat dilute. The solids
should be drawn to a surge tank
where they can be pumped on a
more continuous basis to a gravity
thickener (clarifier) where the solids
can be compacted by the use of high
molecular weight polymer
flocculants. The clear supernatant,
free of solids and the associated
bacteria, viruses, etc. can then be
sent to the filters or perhaps the
head of the plant. The concentrated
underflow may then be treated
more efficiently.
The methods used to dewater
solids would include:
1. Lagooning
2. Twin-belt pressing
3. Centrifugation
4. Vacuum filtration
5. Sand bed
How practical is lagooning as
a solids disposal method?
In most cases, lagooning seems to
be only a temporary remedy to the
14
problem. It is obviously the simplest
method as raw solids can be
pumped to the lagoon without
consideration for concentration, etc.
Clear supernate can be decanted
either back to the plant or to the
receiving body of water. What
happens in most cases, however, is
that after the lagoon has been filled
up and out of service for several
years, the material deposited has
reached an equilibrium state. It will
not further dewater and is not
suitable for use for any other
purpose. The reason for this being
that the hydrous solids simply will
not dewater and support loads.
Often the solids will not even
support the weight of a person,
thereby making the lagoon a serious
safety hazard for plant personnel
and others. To compound this
situation, the surface often can dry
to what appears to be a stable
condition not indicating the
condition of the subsurface.
When is a centrifuge
beneficial?
Centrifuges have found considerable
use in dewatering softening solids
due to the more dense nature of the
solids. This is particularly true
where the calcium carbonate solids
are recovered and reclaimed for
reuse. In this system, the centrifuge
provides a means to dewater the
solids, which reduces energy
requirements during drying.
Magnesium is either precipitated in
a secondary basin or washed from
the solids prior to centrifugation, so
that it will not interfere with the
calcining (as a result of fouling by the
soluble magnesium carbonate).
Where solids are not recovered for
reuse, polymer is added to the
centrifuge to provide a clear
supernate and recover all of the
solids from centrate, which then can
be recycled or discharged.
For alum solids, the centrifuge has
shown very little success except
where high turbidities are
encountered. Higher turbidities
provide greater density in the
resulting clarification solids. Greater
densities also result when a
significant portion of the alum has
been replaced by cationic
polyelectrolyte. Even if a partial
concentration is achieved, the
resulting solids must be disposed of
in some practical manner.
Has filtration found much use
in solids dewatering?
Very little. This again is due to the
hydrous nature of conventional
treatment solids, which quickly blind
the filter media and decrease
efficiency. In some cases, solids have
been successfully mixed with fly ash
or lime, which makes it more
filterable.
What about sand bed
dewatering?
This method seems to be a
workable method to dewater solids.
This is primarily due to the fact that
the bulk of the liquid is either
decanted or drained within a
relatively short period of time so
that evaporative drying can
complete the process. In warm
areas it would be anticipated that
the use of an asphalt pad might be
effective whereby the supernate can
be withdrawn, the material
evaporated due to the weather
conditions, and then reclamation of
the solids following drying. This
method would make scraping the
solids easier.
Is there any easier method to
simplify solids handling?
Yes. Don't make as much solids in
the first place. In practically all cases,
the use of alum and iron salts can be
eliminated by the use of the
synthetic polymers, while at the
same time producing quality water.
This may not be possible with
existing water plant design, due to
the special considerations required
for some waters. Improvements
may be required in the area of rapid
mixing, pre-sedimentation, and
solids recycle capabilities. Each plant
will be different and needs must be
determined individually.
Is there any prerequisite that
must be considered in order
to be reasonably sure of
successful alum replacement?
Only the commitment that it will be
done. Plants that have attempted
alum replacement unsuccessfully
have largely failed due to the fact
that they were not willing to make
plant modifications that would
assure success. Conventional
treatment may generate
conventional problems. New
methods require new thinking
and meaningful objectives.
15
NALCO Global Solutions
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Nalco strives to deliver results that accelerate customers’ profitability levels
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