Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Number : 8
Jestha 2066 BS
May - June 2009 AD
The Content and the ideas of the article are solely of authors.
Published by
Government of Nepal
Ministry of Land Reform and Management
Survey Department
Min Bhawan, Kathmandu,
Nepal
Price : Rs 100
Publications
Page 27 4 Land use land cover change in mountainous
watersheds of middle Himalayas, Nepal
Control Points By Basanta Raj Gautam and Paban Kumar Joshi
Page 20
Page 21
Aerial Photographs and Map Transparencies
Page 33 5 Need of professionalism in geomatics
profession for the development of sustainable
Digital Data Layers
Page 33 system
By Umesh Kumar and Rabin K. Sharma
Soter Data Page 28
Page 33
Hridaya Narayan Mishra Krishna Prasad Dhungel Durgendra Man Kayastha Kalyan Gopal Shrestha
Member Member Member Member
Editorial Board
I
Editorial
II
Message from Director General; Survey Department
If we distribute the sacks of rice from a rice store continuously without any replacement, the store will get
empty in one day whereas if we go on distributing knowledge it will never dried up. Journal is one of the means
for sharing information and increasing knowledge in the related field. Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics (NJG) is
one of the publications of Survey Department and is beeing published annually in the month of Jestha (May-June)
to create awareness in the applications of Geoinformatics for national development activities to the decision makers
and user communities by including different information related to Geo- information Science.
For your kind information, I was Editor-in-Chief from first to fifth issue of NJG and now I am fortunate to be
the Chairperson of the Advisory Council for the eighth issue. When I compare first issue with this issue of the NJG,
I am pleased to notice that there is a substantial improvement in its outlook and quality. We are always looking
forward for improving its contents, quality and standard to satisfy our esteemed readers of the journal. Hence we
heartily invite our readers to feed us with their comments, critics and suggestions and standard articles for improving
the status of the journal.
In the present context of building new Nepal, Survey Department needs to add new dimension to its activities.
These could be: implementation of Digital Cadastre, development of 3D Cadastre system, determination of Geoid,
adoption of mechanism for continuously updating the National Topographic Database, publication of National
Atlas and widening the scope of National Geographic Information Infrastructure Programme to accommodate
maximum number of stakeholders of its net. The outcomes from these activities will definitely support for national
development.
As per the article 11(e) of Land (Survey and Measurement) Act 2056, Survey Department issued, first time
in its history, the surveyor's license to the eligible candidates of the surveying and mapping professionals. This event
is one of the mile stones of the Department. In this context, the license holder professionals formed Nepal Institution
of Chartered Surveyors (NICS) to foster the Chartered Surveyors, to create homogeneity in their performance and
to protect and expand their professional rights and welfare. Thus the Department believes that the NJG could play
a role to increase knowledge in the field of Geoinformatics to the license holder survey professionals for delivering
efficient service to their clients.
Finally, I would like to express thanks to all the Advisory Council members and Editorial Board members
for their devotions and would like to extend appreciations to all the author of the articles published in this issue for
their contributions.
III
Applications of open source software in land
administration: An initiation with
land administration education
PostgreSQL PostGIS
(Attribute Data (Spatial Data Base)
Base)
uDig
(User Interface)
Keywords 1. Introduction
Space Science, Geomatics, Atmospheric science, Nepal, a sovereign independent Country, is
Remote Sensing, satellite communication, Global climate, bounded on the north by the Tibetan Autonomous Region
modules, image processing of the People’s Republic of China, and on the east, south
and west by India. The total area of the country is 147181
Abstract sq km. The length is 885 Km in east west and breadth
varies from 145-241 Km north south. The country can
Space science and Geomatics education in Nepal
be divided into three broad geographic regions, High
is recently started on some of the training institution and
Himalayan, Mountainous and Plane region. The country
university of Nepal. Preliminary subjects required for
has 5 administrative regions, 14 zones and 75 districts.
space science and technology have been introduced into
Population of Nepal as per Census 2001 is 23 million.
science curricula at the higher secondary level of the
Land is the only immovable property which can be
Nepalese’s school, however the benefit of space science and
used as a means for agriculture production as well as a
technology have not been appreciated enough. Facilities
means for financing industrial or commercial enterprises.
and resources of teaching science and technology at
Space science and technology plays an important role in
educational institutions are not yet developed. Attempts
managing our land, water resources and natural resources.
have been made to incorporate the elements of space Recently the advancement in space science and technology
science and technology into undergraduate level of has given the opportunities for extraction and analysis of
education of the university. required information for the development of day to day
This paper start with the discussion on the space activities of all the sectors of the government and private
science education in Nepal at the school and college business. Governmental organizations, non governmental
level and mainly focus on initiation taken by the training organizations (NGO), international non-governmental
institution and university of Nepal to introduce the subjects organization (INGO), private consultants and universities
of space science and technology at their curriculum on are using space science and technology in the fields
geomatics engineering and other engineering education. of education, agriculture, land management, forestry,
Some recommendation have been made to introduce the bio-diversity, tourism, health medicine and research &
different type of educational courses and/or training on development etc.
space science and technology, which will meet the needs of Space science and technology could address
development to built a general capability in space science to resolve the major issues such as population growth,
as a necessary support for infrastructure development environmental degradation, resources management,
of Nepal and consequently will help to promote the poverty reduction, urbanization etc. Now a days many
educational activities on space science education in the sensors are available, which produce the image having
country. resolution from 0.6m up to 90m. The sensor like IKONOS
has 1m. Image resolution, Quick Bird has 0.6m image
resolution whereas Land Sat has 30 m resolution and thus,
3.4.2 Practical
Module 1: Operational metrological satellite data
handling
Module 2 Parameter retrieval modeling
Module 3 Image processing and interpretation
1. Survey Goswaras dissolved vision of the Department amidst a function. Prof Enemark
As per the decision of the Government of Nepal on 13th presented a paper on Land Administration System.
February 2009 the Survey Goswaras are dissolved and For full paper please visit
merged to Survey offices. Now the Survey offices are www.fig.net/news/news_2009/nepal_february_2009.htm.
classified into five categories. Survey office lying on
category “ka” and “kha” are responsible for Surveying
and mapping and updating where as the Survey offices
lying on categories “Ga”, “Gha” and “Na” are responsible
for updating only. The Survey office and the different
categories are as follows.
Category “Ka”
Dillibazar, Parsa, Banke, Rupndehi, Kailali, Sarlahi, Jhapa
Kaski, Biratnagar.
Category “Kha”
Lalitpur, Bhaktpur, Chabahil, Kalanki, Sunsari, Saptari,
Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, Rautahat, Bara, Chitawan,
Makawanpur, Nawalparasi, Kapilbastu, Dang, Bardiya, Mr. Rabin K. Sharma, Prof. Dr. Stig Enemark,
Kanchanpur. Prof. Dr. Mr. Suresh Raj Sharma and Prof. Dr. Bhola Thapa
Category “Ga”
Kawashoti, Lahan, Belbari, Damak, Tikapur, Udayapur,
Kavre, Surkhet, Tanahuh, Doti, Dhankuta, Shyanga, Palpa,
Ilam, Dhading, Nuwakot, Sindhupalchok, Parbat.
Category “Gha”
Baglung, Sindhuli, Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, Dailekh, Salyan,
Pyuthan, Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Dolakha, Ramechhap,
Gorkha, Lamjung.
Category “Na”
Myagdi, Bhojpur, Panchthar, Solukhumbu, Khotang,
Okhaldhunga, Khandbari, Chainpur, Rukum, Rolpa,
Taplejung, Tehrathum, Darchula, Bajhang, Rasuwa, Mr. Raja Ram Chhatkuli, Prof. Dr. Stig Enemark,
Jajarkot, Achham, Mustang, Manang, Bajura, Jumla, and Mr. Babu Ram Acharya.
Humla, Mugu, Dolpa, Kalikot.
3. Change of leadership in Survey department
2. Visit of President of FIG to Nepal Government of Nepal appointted Rabin kaji Sharma ,
President of International Federation of Surveyors (FIG) the Executive Director of Land Management Training
Prof. Dr. Stig Enemark visited Survey Department on 16th Centre as Director General of Survey Department on 2nd
February 2009 during his visit to Nepal from 14 February March 2009. After taking the charge of Director General
to 18 February 2009. the then Director General of Survey Mr. Sharma addressed the staffs in the meeting hall of the
Department Mr. Raja Ram Chhatkuli highlighted the Department. He addressed that his prime focus will be to
present activities run by Survey Department and future improve service delivery to the stake holders
lowing a Pdisaster or
POLITICAL
conflict.
L A N D
OBJECTIVES
P O L I C Y P
O L Land Valuation
L O
L Land Market
L
I A A I
the same time, T
N
I
it has been observed that N
property right assurance is not the only
Land Taxation
T
I
eans of uplifting C
D
A of poor. Property rights
Tenure
Security D are only means of recognition by the
C
A
L L
thority andP society. As . long as informal
Land
Land
Administration P
occupation is not contested, user can
Administration
e it for livelihood
O O and agriculture production
Land Use
Planning
Land
Reform
O O as it happens in the rural areas of
B B
ountain (in E
J L Nepal, the author has observed
Land
L J
E
it) where people use unregistered
Administrator
nd for horticulture
C
T
I
or wild plantation of I C
T
economic value. Another observation is
I C C I
at the highly V
E Y
complex formalities required Y E
V for land titling causes the poor to
hance theS hardshipL Aand N D
make
P O L I C Y
ultimatelyS less attentive derailing them to be out
POLITICAL OBJECTIVES
the system andthe dependability
Figure 1, Showing making them instrument
of implementation informal settler. Figure 2, Evicted people under the open sky,
on the land administration
Figure
and the 1: Showing the dependability of implementation
tool systems encapsulated by land policy and ultimately
instrument on the land administration tool and the
by political objective Figure 1a, Evicted
Source: people under the open
http://farm3.static.flickr.com
systems encapsulated by land policy and ultimately by sky, Source: http://farm3.static.flickr.com
political objective 2
2. Property rights and tenure security In the other cases, property rights are rel
Land is a fundamental factor for agricultural production defined land rights exploit the effort of the
and is thus directly linked to food security. Without land,
farmer can not grow, at least, their intended corps of and divert them from other income gene
production. If somebody is not assured of possession what facilitate transfer of rights at low transact
he/she holds, then it constrains to perform development
market and ultimately empowers the privat
activities on that piece of land by the fear of possibility of
eviction. Moreover the abiding law itself does not allow self should have some desirable characteri
performing any economic activity (or/and use for benefit)
on or with entity of non-ownership. People overwhelmed materialization of the expectation it states in
by the extreme poverty may be led to conflict and finally Figure 3, Informal settlement in Kapan 3,
degrade the environment for short-term survival. Hence, Kathmandu, Source: www.google.com
Mostly desirable one is the indefinit
Figure rights (as described
settlement inin the 3,continu
Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics - 8, 2066 14
Figure 1a, Evicted people under the open 1b, Informal Kapan
sky, Source: http://farm3.static.flickr.com accruable
Kathmandu, period
Source: must confirm the b
www.google.com
must be presence whenor establishment
legitimate or legal rights of are
institutions forwhen
to be enforced legal backings
called on by the
egitimate or legal property right holders
rights are to(Deininger).
be enforced when called on by the
y right Inholders
the other cases,(Deininger).
property rights are related to the economic
growth. Poorly defined land rights exploit the effort of the
land holder just to defend their land and divert them from
other income generating activities. Secure tenure rights
over the investment. Hence such rights should be renewable
facilitate transfer of rights at low transaction cost which
term and inheritable (so that widows or divorced can c
stimulate formal land market and ultimately empowers the
private sector (Deininger). Property rights itself should
economic performance).
have some desirable characteristics which Land policy
must hintFigure2a,
for materialization
showing of the expectation
group it states in
effort in Figure individual
Figure2b, 5, Individual effort
effortwith traditional
with traditional
its declaration.
cultivation technology may result low production.
technology may result low production.
Property rights should be identifiable (depending up on the f
- Mostly desirable one is the indefinite property
- The land rights must be adaptable to the development
The
rights, but ifland rights
there are adaptable toi.e.the
must(asbedescribed
other rights
it must be evolutionary that adapts the change
the transaction) and easily transferable (i.e. low transaction
in thedevelopment
continuum such as i.e. it rental
lease or
carried by the technology. Particularly, in case
mustone),betheevolutionary
of group rights which must be evolvable into the
owing groupshould
effort inalso be provision
accruable Figure2b, of
thatperiod bundleeffort
individual
must confirm
adapts of with
rights
the thechange (stack of right
traditional
benefit from the
carried byindividual
the rights if an individual can generate the
land (or activities on it) over the investment. Hence same or even more production than the group by
technology may result low production.
technology. Particularly, in case of group
different type of occupants.
such rights should be renewable and of long term
rights which must be evolvable intothethe
and inheritable (so that widows or divorced can
use of the state of art technology (Figure6).
individual
continue rights if an individual can
the economic performance).
must
d rights Since be adaptable
type of rightstosuch
- Property
up onthan
rights the as individual or group, is the matt
generate the be
the frequency
should
of
same
the
identifiable
or even
transaction)
(depending
and
more production
easily
ment i.e. cultural
it mustand the group by the use of
be historical
evolutionary the state of art
arrangement, such rights should be only
transferable (i.e. low transaction cost). There should
technology (Figure3).
apts the based
change also be provision of bundle of rights (stack of right
carried by externalities
the Figure 3, Framing using technology
on (i) how the can be managed (by group or
sticks!) for different type of occupants.
3.(ii)Land
ogy. Particularly, policy
how in
thecase and land
of group market are to managed (iii) produ
- Since type of rights such as individual or group,
resources or outcome
is the matter of social, cultural and historical
which must lowbeifevolvable
Landarrangement,
accrued by into antheindividual effort and/or high if by
marketsuch is one
rightsof thebeformal
should mechanism that makes the land accessible to the
only ascertained
poor (oronrich
based (i) howasthewell). Different
externalities types of land market model such as sales market,
can be managed
ual rightsforce).This
if an individual
rental market,
can
is more applicable
(by group or by person), to the agricultural land. (Figure
(ii) how the
and credit resourcesand
market or mortgage based on land are seen to be
e the same or even more production
outcome are to managed (iii) productivity (it is low
existing. But at the same time, land market may lead to destitution to the poor
if accrued by an individual effort and/or high if
stripping them off their property, if there are speculations causing land
group by the use of the state of art
There must be presence or establishment of institutions for le
by the group force).This is more applicable to the
accumulation
agricultural land.by the4 and
(Figure so-called
5) elites. In case of political turbulence or social
ogy (Figure3). Figure are
3, Framing
- There people
unrest, must bemay
when legitimate or legal rightspresence
not or to be using technology
be establishment
able to selloftheir wage labor
enforced
institutions for legal backings when legitimate or
when calle Figure 6,while
Farmingthey are compelled to
using technology
f land High
usetaxation
planning and
causes the people itsfromimplementation
to run away the formal cause the urban areas into
system. Land taxation as well as land market mechanism
The more the public lands (green space, road, parks and river etc. but al
can effectively sustain if there exists well defined and
d) made availed
well designed through
land valuation system. Landplanning,
market, land the better the environment. The
taxation and land valuation are separate system but in
ry of land zoning
the modern can
perspective they be bettereach
are intertwined illustrated
other by comparing the following two
of part (Please refer Figure 1 above). The taxation system should
of Kathmandu area (Source: www.Google.com)
also incorporate appeal procedure for those who do not get Figure 9, Town Planned area having secure land
content on the tax imposed on their property.
Figure tenure
3a, in Town Planned area
Sinamangal, Kathmandu
having secure land tenure in
Sinamangal, Kathmandu
5. Land policy and Land use planning andpublic
acquisition of land
Land use and zone planning is the only land policy
implementation instrument that ties land policy with Access to land and Tenure security on t
other policies those concern for land. Land use planning
synoptically deals with land generally from very small better humankind. On one hand, people
maps whereas cadastre deals with large scale maps.
land they are given access to. On the o
Expansion of agricultural land at the cost of the forest or
other areas degrades environment. The story of urban areaand ownership on land, they should no
is also not seen promising. Exodus from rural to urban
has caused urbanization to expand to the extent affectingthe legitimate-use (!) in the environme
the agrarian land turning into jungle of building for the
purpose of housing, industrial or commercial set up.
for one should not violate the sustainab
concept
Land is accelerating toward scarcity. If it is not managed
re 3a, Town Planned area of internalization of the ext
Figure 10, Unplanned area also having secure land tenure in
based on proper land use planning, over and haphazard Figure 3b, Unplanned area also having
Kapan, Kathmandu shows no road for the interior building
ng secure land tenure in balance the man-land relationship
exploitation will firstly deplete the public lands through
secure land tenure in Kapan, Kathmanduby ma
mangal, Kathmandu
grabbing and encroachment and then lead to social unrest
its Access
shows
or disintegration due to demands for shelter in the urban noto road
resources,land and Tenure
thesecurity
for through on thethe
interior other hand
building
not the ultimate goal for better humankind. On one hand,
is
legitimate
area which ultimately create social unrest due to the legislation
people must be and general
able to reap interest.
the benefit from the land theyContro
pressure of over population. It should not be forgotten that are given access to. On the other hand, in the name of
the value of the private land is judged by the quality ofentails land
accessibility
use
to andis
planning.
ownership on land,ultimate
they should not be
to land and Tenure security on the other
public space.
hand not the
authorized to generate side effect of the legitimate-use (!)
goal for
umankind. On one hand, people must inbe able to(Figure
the environment reap 11). Itthe
meansbenefit from the
land accessibility
Lack of land use planning and its implementation cause the Land use regulation and zoning
for one should not violate the sustainability for the whole proc
ey are given
urban areas access
into slums. The to. moreOn thelandsother
the public (green hand, in the name of accessibility
(society). It is here the concept of internalization of the to
planning, implementation and mainten
nershipspace,
onroad, parks and river etc. but all managed) made
land, they should not be authorized
availed through planning, the better the environment.
externalities should betointroduced
generatejust to balance
sidethe man-
effect of
way, always
land relationship affect
by maintaining the
sustainableowner
usability of in exe
timate-use (!) ofinlandthe
The necessary zoningenvironment (Figure
can be better illustrated by land and its4). It means
resources, land restrictions
through the legitimate accessibility
comparing the following two images of part of Kathmandu Therefore
which must belandbased onuse planning
legislation must be b
and general interest.
shouldareanot violate
(Source: the sustainability
www.Google.com) for the
dataControlling
of whole (society). It is
over exploitation and legitimate use entails
the area concerned by here the
making
land use planning.
of internalization of the externalities infrastructure shouldalong be introduced
with other just to
socio-
the man-land relationship by maintaining interferes sustainable
with the usability
private of land
rights andand
th
Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics - 8, 2066 17
ources, through the legitimate restrictions the legal background which must andbeonly based on
for pub
on and general interest. Controlling over exploitation and legitimate use
Land use regulation and zoning process involves creation of acquire credit. Government must arrange such mechanism.
framework for planning, implementation and maintenance Properly formulated land reform program watchful to the
of the defined use, which by some way, always affect side effect can solve national problem in stead of being a
the owner in exercising their rights on use of the land. mere political agenda. Conspicuous example of land reform
Therefore land use planning must be based on the standard is Nicaragua's agrarian reform under the Sandinistas which
multiple geo-spatial data of the area concerned by making resulted in expropriation of some large holdings(1979),
use of national geospatial information infrastructure along which after initial collectivization has been progressively
with other socio-economic data. As mentioned above, redistributed to individual farmers, including returning
it interferes with the private rights and therefore such Contras after 1989(http://www.infoplease.com /ce6/sci/
measures must be based on the legal background and only A0856508.html).
for public welfare. Land policy must hint such issues so
that expectation can be materialized.
(http://images.google.com/images?um=1&hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enNL247NL248&q=picture+of+brick+factory+in+nepal)
Figure 11 Using own land Clean Bhaktapur, having nasty polluters (brick kiln) surrounding and within the city, Nepal,
(News Clean
Figure 4, Using own land! source http://kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?&nid=59560)
(!)Bhaktapur, having nasty polluters (brick kiln) surrounding
and within the city, Nepal, (News source http://kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?&nid=59560)
7. Conclusion
6. Land policy and Land Reform
Land policy issues are highly complex having interrelation
Land reform is the process of examining and changing
among them. It is related to an individual’s subsistence to
laws, regulations and customs relating to land ownership
6. Land policy and Land Reform
and land tenure. The purpose of land reform should be to
the whole society’s welfare and only one sided orientation
can not meet the multifaceted demands. Institutional
bring about
Land a more is
reform equitable
the distribution
process ofof landexamining
ownership and changing laws, regulations andone
responsibilities regarding land is not bound to only
at the same time the land suffers underutilization adding
customs relating to land ownership and land tenure.
sector The purpose
but it comprises many of themofsuch
land reform
as environment,
to abject poverty on the rural people. This brings about
should
access tobe landtoon bring
the poor about
and also a equitable urban
moreagricultural
enhances
planning, agriculture,
distribution land reform etc,
of land ownership which
at the
necessitates to be threaded by broader policy framework
same time Land
productivity. the land
reform suffers
program canunderutilization
take into many adding to abject poverty on the rural
and needs support and cooperation among all concerned
forms such as land redistribution,
people. This brings about access to landland tenure reform, land on the poor and also enhances
line agencies.
restitution, land consolidation etc. For implementation of
agricultural productivity. Land reform program can take into many forms such as
Land administration is not itself a goal but it is meant to
such program, preventive legislation needs to be removed
land
and newredistribution, land
incentive legislation shouldtenure reform,
be introduced. This land
serverestitution, land consolidation
the policy implementation instruments. Theetc.
form
For implementation of such program,
usually involves changes in laws and regulations and also preventive
the legislation
administration is needs
dependent to
of be
what removed
the land policy
changes
and newin incentive
customs. legislation should be introduced. declares or expects.
This usually involves changes
inThe
laws
land and regulations
reform and
as such does not also
bring changes
an automatic Guarantee of
thein customs. land tenure security, reduction of the
change on the economic status. For this, Poor must have transaction cost and environment for institutional
accessibility to non-land assets and working capital by the enforcement for enjoy of accessed right are the preliminary
The land reform as such does not bring an automatic the change on the economic
issues the land policy should address to. Land policy
poor. The beneficiary of land reform program must be able to
status. For this, Poor must have accessibility to non-land assets and working
capital by onthe
Nepalese Journal poor. -The
Geoinformatics 8, 2066 beneficiary of 18
land reform program must be able to
acquire credit. Government must arrange such mechanism. Properly formulated
land reform program watchful to the side effect can solve national problem in
issues are not unique and depend on the social, cultural and 7. Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements, 1996,
political and geographical setting of a particular country United Nations Conference on Human Settlements
as well. (Habitat II), Istanbul
8. Subedi N.R. and Paudyal D.R., 2005, Identification
References of Informal Settlement by Integration of Cadastral
1. Bell K. C., 2007, Good Governance in Land Information and Remote Sensing Satellite Imagery,
Administration, Hong Kong www.oircf.org, FIG
2. Dale P. and McLaughlin J., 1998, Land 9. UN-HABITAT, 2004, Pro Poor Land Management,
Administration, Oxford University Press, UK UNHSP
3. Deininger K., 2003, Land Policies for Growth and 10. United Nations, 2007, United Nations Land
Poverty Reduction, World Bank Report, USA Administration Guide Lines, Reader, International
Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth
4. Encyclopedia, Agrarian Reform, Latin America
Observation, ITC, The Netherlands
and Africa, Columbia University Press, www.
infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0856508.html 11. van der Molen, P., 2008, Land Policy and Land
Management, Reader, International Institute for
5. EU Task Force on Land Tenure, 2004, EU Land
Geo-information Science and Earth Observation,
Policy Guidelines
ITC, The Netherlands
6. Holden S., Kaarhus R. and Lunduka R., 2006, Land
12. World Food Summit, 1996, www.fao.org/wfs/
Policy Reform: The Role of Land Markets and
index_en.htm
Women’s Land Rights in Malawi
- Professional education
Ganesh Prasad Bhatta, Chief Survey Officer
Janak Raj Joshi, Survey Officer
Roshani Sharma, Survey Officer
1 year from September 2008, ITC the Netherlands
1 1:25,000 Topo Maps Terai and mid mountain region 590 150.00
of Nepal
2. 1:50 000 Topo Maps HIgh Mountain and Himalayan 116 150.00
region of Nepal
3. 1:50 000 Land Utilization maps Whole Nepal 266 40.00
4. 1:50 000 Land Capibility maps Whole Nepal 266 40.00
5. 1:50 000 Land System maps Whole Nepal 266 40.00
6. 1:125 000 Geological maps Whole Nepal 82 40.00
7. 1:250 000 Climatological maps Whole Nepal 17 40.00
8. 1:125 000 Districts maps Whole Nepal 76 50.00
Nepali
9. 1:125 000 Zonal maps (Nepali) Whole Nepal 15 50.00
10. 1:500 000 Region maps (Nepali) Whole Nepal 5 50.00
11. 1:500 000 Region maps (English) Whole Nepal 5 50.00
12. 1:500 000 maps (English) Whole Nepal 3 50.00
13. 1:1 million Nepal Map Nepal 1 50.00
14. 1:2 million Nepal Map Nepal 1 15.00
15. Wall Map (mounted with wooden Nepal 1 400.00
stick)
16. Photo Map 1 150.00
17. Wall Map (loose sheet) Nepal 1 set 50.00
18. VDC/Municipality Maps Whole Nepal 4181 40.00
19 VDC/Municipality Maps A4 Size Whole Nepal 4181 5.00
20. VDC/Municipality Maps A3 Size Whole Nepal 4181 10.00
21. Orthophoto Map Urban Area (1: 5 000) and - 1 000.00
Semi Urban Area (1: 10 000)
22. Administrative Map Nepal 1 5.00
1
Faculty of Forest Sciences, University of Joensuu, Finland (gautam@cc.joensuu.fi)
2
Associate Professor, TERI University, New Delhi, India
28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N
-
28°16'0"N
28°16'0"N
28°14'0"N
28°14'0"N
Chileme watershed
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N
Bamdang watershed
28°10'0"N
28°10'0"N
28°8'0"N
85°12'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E 85°20'0"E
0 0.5 1 2 3 4
KM
Figure
Figure 1.1.Study
Studyarea
areaand
anditsitslocation
location
topography. Change detection was performed by land use land cover classes were identified in Chileme
intersecting Contour land
thematic map use waslandprepared
cover map in 40m contour
of 1976 4. Results
watershed (Figure 2).
and intervals
1988, 1988from 1:50000
and 2000, scale
and topographic
2000 andmaps 2006produced
in On screen visual interpretation of satellite data was
by the Department
ERDAS. The time of Survey
series (Nepal).
land use Similarly
maps were drainage The major land use classes identified were forest and
carried out to find out different land use land cover classes
and spot
compared heightchange
to locate map areas.
were Theprepared from maps
intersected the same non-forest. Forest was further subdivided into pine
weretopographic
recoded maps. into Abinary variables 1 and 0 was in conjugation
mixed forest,with
mixedinformation
forest, from topographic
conifer maps than
forest other and
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
representing change and no change areas. The ground truth. Theforest,
pine, degraded identification and delineation
shrubs/bushes, of land
grassland, use
pasture,
generated in ARC/INFO software using contour, drainage
slope and aspect maps were intersected with recoded classes with Non-forest
and scrub. other cover types were done
was further by following
classified the
into tree-
and spot height map. Slope and aspect maps were derived
changed/unchanged map to find out the role of standard
farm land, visual agriculture,
interpretation water
technique.bodyA uniform land
and snow.
from DEM in ERDAS onsoftware. The land
coveruse land cover
topographic parameters land use land change. use classification
Distribution scheme
of land usewas used
land whileininterpreting
cover Bamdang the and
maps of respective years were intersected with slope and
land use classes. The land use map of the year 1976,2
Chileme watersheds is shown in the Table 1 and
aspect index map in ERDAS software to assess land cover
Results respectively.
1988, 2000 and 2006 were prepared for both watersheds.
distribution along the topography. Change detection was
Total 14 land use land cover classes were identified in
On performed
screen visualby intersecting
interpretationthematic land use
of satellite dataland
wascover The results of land use land cover change analysis
carried out to find out different land use land cover Bamdang
showed, out watershed whereas
of 8617.06 ha. total 15 land use
geographical land
area cover
1702.74
map of 1976 and 1988, 1988 and 2000, and 2000 and 2006
classes in conjugation with information classes were identified in Chileme
under watershed (Figure 2).in
in ERDAS. The time series land use maps were fromcompared ha. (19.76% area) was change category
topographic maps and ground truth. The identification Chileme
watershed and out of 4163.75 ha. geographical
The major land use classes identified were forest
to locate change areas. The intersected maps were recoded
and delineation of land use classes with other cover area 1292.28 ha. (31.03% area) was under change
intowere
binarydone
variables 1 and 0 representing “change” and “no and non-forest. Forest was further subdivided into pine
types by following the standard visual category in Bamdang watershed during 1976 and 1988.
change” areas.
interpretation The slope and
technique. A aspect maps were
uniform land intersected
use mixed forest, mixed
The analysis forest,a conifer
revealed forest other
huge change than pine,
in open pine
with recoded
classification changed/unchanged
scheme was used whilemap to find out
interpreting thethe role degraded
mixed forestforest,
in shrubs/bushes,
Chileme and ingrassland,
open mixedpasture,
forestandin
landofuse
topographic
classes. Theparameters
land use onmap
land ofusethe
land cover
year change.
1976, scrub.
Bamdang Non-forest
watershed.was Afurther classifiedhainto
total 613.13 tree-farm
of open pine
1988, 2000 and 2006 were prepared for both mixed forest was converted into other land use types,
watersheds. Total 14 land use land cover classes were
NepaleseinJournal
identified on Geoinformatics
Bamdang watershed- 8,whereas
2066 total 15 22
2
land, agriculture, water body and snow. Distribution other land uses especially degraded forest (466.81 ha) in
of land use land cover in Bamdang and Chileme Chileme and total 709.19 ha open mixed forest was convert-
watersheds is shown in the Table 1 and 2 respectively. ed into other land uses especially degraded forest (584.06
ha) in Bamdang watersheds. During 2000 and 2006,
The results of land use land cover change analysis
282.94 and 239.19 ha area was assessed under change cat-
showed, out of 8617.06 ha. geographical area 1702.74
egory in Chileme and Bamdang watersheds respectively.
ha. (19.76% area) was under change category in Chileme
During 2000 and 2006, the major changes were in open
watershed and out of 4163.75 ha. geographical area 1292.28
mixed forest in Bamdang whereas the major changes as-
ha. (31.03% area) was under change category in Bamdang
sessed in shrubs and bushes in Chileme watershed. 49.25
watershed during 1976 and 1988. The analysis revealed a
ha open mixed forest was converted into other land use
huge change in open pine mixed forest in Chileme and in
classes especially agriculture (22.75 ha) followed by de-
open mixed forest in Bamdang watershed. A total 613.13
graded forest (21.25 ha) in Bamdang watershed whereas
ha of open pine mixed forest was converted into other land
total 59.63 ha area converted into alpine pasture in Chil-
use types, majority comprised of agriculture (216.63 ha)
eme watershed. The annual rate of change was assessed
in Chileme watershed. Similarly, 248.25 ha open mixed
as 8.34%, 8.33% and 16.66 % in Bamdang and 5.61%,
forest was converted into other land use types, majority
10.90% and 16.67% in Chileme watershed during 1976
comprised of agriculture (60.63 ha) in Bamdang watershed.
– 1988, 1988 – 2000 and 2000 – 2006 respectively. The
During 1988 and 2000, 1390.44 ha area was as- present result demonstrated the effect of topography on
sessed under change category in Chileme and 1089.31 land use land cover change. Slope and aspect maps were
ha in Bamdang watershed. During this time, the major taken into consideration while analyzing change along to-
changes were in open mixed forest in both watersheds. pography. Change analysis revealed that there were very
Total 538.63 ha open mixed forest was converted into less changes up to 6 degree slope in both watersheds. As
-- --
85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E 28°14'0"N 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E 28°14'0"N
85°12'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E 85°12'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E
28°14'0"N 1976 28°14'0"N 1988
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
85°12'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E
1976 85°18'0"E 85°12'0"E 85°14'0"E 85°16'0"E 85°18'0"E
1988 1976
28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N
1988
1976 1988
28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N 28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N
28°18'0"N
28°12'0"N 28°12'0"N 28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N 28°8'0"N
28°12'0"N 28°8'0"N 28°8'0"N 28°8'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N
28°12'0"N 28°8'0"N
28°8'0"N 28°8'0"N 28°8'0"N
28°16'0"N 28°16'0"N
28°16'0"N 28°16'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°10'0"N 28°10'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
28°14'0"N 28°14'0"N
Figure 2: Land Use Land Cover map of Chileme and Bamdang watershed from 1976 to 2006
Figure 2: Land Figure 2: Land
Use Land CoverUsemapLand Cover map
of Chileme andofBamdang
Chileme watershed
and Bamdangfromwatershed from 1976 to 2006
1976 to 2006
majority comprised of agriculture (216.63 ha) in pasture in Chileme watershed. The annual rate of
majority
Nepalese comprised
Journal
Chileme of Similarly,
agriculture
on Geoinformatics
watershed. (216.63
- 8, 2066248.25 ha) mixed
ha open in pasture in was
change Chileme watershed.
assessed The
as 8.34%, annual
8.33% and rate
16.66of% in
Chileme watershed. Similarly, 248.25 ha open mixed 23 change
forest was converted into other land use types, majority Bamdang and 5.61%, 10.90% and 16.67% in %
was assessed as 8.34%, 8.33% and 16.66 in
Chileme
forest was converted into other land use types,
comprised of agriculture (60.63 ha) in Bamdang majority Bamdang and 5.61%, 10.90% and 16.67% in Chileme
watershed during 1976 1988, 1988 2000 and 2000
comprised
watershed.of agriculture (60.63 ha) in Bamdang watershed
2006during 1976 1988,
respectively. 1988 result
The present 2000 and 2000
demonstrated
the slope increased the change areas were also increased. tion revealed that people are shifting towards inaccessi-
The change process was gradual between 6 to 25 degree ble areas for resource extraction. This might be because
slopes. However, very prominent changes were assessed of the fact that resource in the gentle slope was already
between 25 and 55 degree in both watersheds. This process reached beyond the threshold of optimum utilization.
of change coupled with collected socioeconomic informa-
Table 1: Area statistics of different forest/land use land cover in Bamdang watershed
1976 1988 2000 2006
S.N. Land Use Class Area Area Area Area Area Area Area Area
(ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%)
A. Forest
1 Pine Mixed Forest (Dense) 147.69 3.55 114.63 2.75 117.38 2.82 113.81 2.73
2 Pine Mixed Forest (Open) 130.88 3.14 126.69 3.04 92.31 2.22 89.81 2.16
3 Mixed Forest (Dense) 988.31 23.74 948.44 22.78 943.50 22.66 959.81 23.05
4 Mixed Forest (Open) 1205.69 28.96 1242.19 29.83 561.94 13.50 540.44 12.98
5 Degraded Forest 459.19 11.03 295.38 7.09 923.81 22.19 891.06 21.40
6 Shrub/Bush 46.25 1.11 51.19 1.23 51.00 1.22 52.38 1.26
7 Grassland 195.56 4.70 164.25 3.94 341.00 8.19 348.56 8.37
8 Alpine Pasture 193.88 4.66 286.75 6.89 310.69 7.46 277.06 6.65
9 Alpine Scrub 294.25 7.07 241.06 5.79 216.56 5.20 206.19 4.95
10 Scrub 17.38 0.42 21.44 0.51 41.81 1.00 40.81 0.98
Sub Total 3679.06 88.36 3492.00 83.87 3600.00 86.46 3519.94 84.54
B Non-Forest
11 Tree Farmland 85.69 2.06 139.69 3.35 162.31 3.90 196.75 4.73
12 Agriculture 355.44 8.54 499.25 11.99 365.38 8.78 405.94 9.75
13 Water body 43.56 1.05 32.81 0.79 36.06 0.87 33.00 0.79
14 Snow 8.13 0.20
Sub Total 484.69 11.64 671.75 16.13 563.75 13.54 643.81 15.46
Grand Total 4163.75 100 4163.75 100 4163.75 100 4163.75 100
Table 2: Area statistics of different forest/ land use land cover in Chileme watershed
1976 1988 2000 2006
S.N. Land Use Class Area Area Area Area Area Area Area Area
(ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%) (ha) (%)
A. Forest
1 Pine Mixed Forest (Dense) 1156.44 13.42 1318.75 15.30 1310.25 15.21 1305.38 15.15
2 Pine Mixed Forest (Open) 1081.56 12.55 549.00 6.37 436.81 5.07 425.75 4.94
3 Mixed Forest (Dense) 391.38 4.54 327.63 3.80 197.13 2.29 193.63 2.25
4 Mixed Forest (Open) 924.50 10.73 924.75 10.73 386.75 4.49 382.94 4.44
5 Coniferous Forest 469.25 5.45 449.94 5.22 449.19 5.21 447.13 5.19
6 Degraded Forest 67.56 0.78 83.38 0.97 702.19 8.15 681.38 7.91
7 Shrub/Bush 653.94 7.59 696.31 8.08 658.38 7.64 602.31 6.99
8 Grassland 28.38 0.33 112.88 1.31 108.00 1.25 94.25 1.09
9 Alpine Pasture 1342.88 15.58 1049.38 12.18 1090.19 12.65 1047.50 12.16
10 Alpine Scrub 1859.88 21.58 2080.94 24.15 2216.00 25.72 1652.38 19.18
11 Scrub 98.25 1.14 234.19 2.72 208.44 2.42 199.56 2.32
Sub Total 8074.00 93.70 7827.13 90.83 7763.31 90.09 7032.19 81.61
B. Non-Forest
12 Tree Farmland 0.00 0.00 7.06 0.08 24.00 0.28 28.88 0.34
13 Agriculture 181.69 2.11 342.88 3.98 452.50 5.25 522.00 6.06
14 Water body 95.06 1.10 90.38 1.05 96.31 1.12 88.32 1.02
15 Snow 266.31 3.09 349.62 4.06 280.938 3.26 945.67 10.97
Sub Total 543.06 6.30 789.93 9.17 853.75 9.91 1584.87 18.39
Grand Total 8617.06 100 8617.06 100 8617.06 100 8617.06 100
Map Transparency
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Image Data:
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2. Geodynamics Department
Danish National Space Center, rf@space.dtu.dk
wavelength, higher frequency information found from mean- earth ellipsoid) is the scaling factor associated with
Ynm ( , ) = Pnm (Cos )Cosm if m>0
the fully
the geocentric normalized
gravitational spherical
constant, geopotential
while a (usually coefficients,
the equatorial -
radius of an adopted Satellite laser ranging to LAGEOS (i=110 degree)
geopotential ( )
Y , = P Cos Cosm
. In addition . In addition
C nm coefficients,
nm nm ( )
mean- earth ellipsoid) is the scaling factor associated with the fully normalized spherical
if m>0
and satellite (i=49.8 degree)
- Surface gravity data which consisted of 11,
Cnm
( () )(
Ynm Y , =, Pnm= Cos P ()
Cos
Cosm )
Sinm if m>0
688,136 gravity values referenced to IGSN or the
nm nm if m < 0 WGS84 ellipsoid.
( ) (
Ynm , = Pnm Cos Sinm ) if m < 0
- Oceanic geoid heights deduced from a set of
approximately 4.2 million along track point geoid
heights derived from SEASAT-1.
Pnm (Cos ) areare the
thefully
fullynormalized
normalized associated
associated Legendre
Legendre NAVSTAR
functions of- the first kind GPS data which consisted of
Pnmfunctions
(Cos ) are of
(Heiskanen thethe
and fullyfirst
Moritz, kind (Heiskanen
1967)
normalized and Moritz,
associated Legendre 1967)
functions of the first kind simultaneous tracking data from GPS satellites.
(Heiskanen and Moritz, 1967) - Lumped coefficients, “ which are values of certain
linear combination of gravity coefficients for rather
3. The Commonly used Geopotential models
large orbital perturbations on particular satellites.”
The most commonly used higher order geopotential ( Defence Mapping Agency, 1987)
models and the input data used to determine them is given
in Table-1.
2
Model Degree Origin Date 2
Input Data
Rapp, Wang,
OSU 91A 360 1991 Satellite tracking data(GEM-T2)+sea surface topography
& Pavlis
GSFC/DMA/
EGM 96 360 1996 Satellite tracking data+ surface gravity etc.
Rapp
Table 1
gk] f
zg
NESA
Nepal Surveyors’ Association (NESA)
ION
NEPA
2047
AT
LS
CI
U
RV
O
ER Y SS
ORS’ A
Madhusudan Adhikari
President NESA
Abstract
After detection and elimination of blunders, determination
and correction of systematic errors the remaining random
errors are adjusted by the method of least square. It is very n = l - xˆ
useful technique in survey adjustments; as an example of
n : estimated error
its application, adjustment of conformal transformation of
coordinate has been presented in this paper. l : observed value
xˆ : estimated value
1. Basic concept of Errors
Geomatics engineers are usually faced with the problem
of estimating some unknown quantities (parameters). This
is done through collecting several measurements of some
kind known as observations- and then adopting some
appropriate mathematical model relating both observations Parameters
and unknowns [Naser EL-Sheimy] (Required +
reliability measure)
Observations generally require some form of
instrumentation that is operated by some observer under
certain environmental condition. Therefore, in every
observation these three things- instrument, observer and
Model
environment have an influence on the accuracy of the
(Adopted)
measured quantity. Due to this influence, all observations
contain error - the difference between an observation of a
quantity and it true value.
The true value of a quantity is never known and hence the
true error too. However, both quantities can be estimated. Measurements
Errors
e =l -t
e : true error Due to Due to Due
Due toto
l : observed value Observer Instrument Environme
Environment
nt
t : true value
to arise/ abnormal observations through out the observation and remain after all other errors have
are generally attributable to a been removed. they have no
known circumstance. These can functional relationship based up
be expressed by some functional on a deterministic system usually
relationships. modeled by probability theory
Personal sources carelessness of the All instrumental personal All instrumental personal and
Source
observer and natural sources can cause natural sources can cause random
systematic error error
Inhomogeneous observables It is cumulative in nature. It It is compensating in nature.
Effect/
nature
Differentiating
Differentiating with with respect to h we
respect to will
h we get
w
i =1
i
n
will get
h 2 2
thus the most probable value is theM i ∑
( ) of ithe
=1
dy e weighted arithmeticThen Mmean
= ,
= 1 2h 2 2 observed values. if the observedn
dh values are of equal weight i.e.
dy
For a maximum y, =0 w1=w2=w3 = ..... = wn = w,
Thus for the observations with equal weight the most
dh n
∑we i i
2
= ∑ wi ( M - M i ) 2 = a minimum 3. Adjustment of Conformal Transformation of
i =1 i =1
Coordinates by Least Square Method
d n
or ∑ wi ( M - M i ) 2 = 0 3.1. Conformal Transformation of Coordinates
dM i =1
n
Let us first derive the equations for the conformal
or ∑ wi ( M - M i ) = 0 transformation. A two Dimensional Conformal
i =1 n n Transformation consists ofTransformation
Conformal three basic steps:consists
n
wi M i = w M i ,
∑
or of three basic steps:
wi ( M - M i ) = 0 i =1 i =1 - Scale Change
i =1
Scale Change
n
- Rotation Rotation
or
n n
Mi
∑
i =1
∑
M wi - wi M i = 0 Then M = i =1
i =1
, - Translation
Scale
Translation
Change
n
n
3.1.1 Scale Change say we have coordinate
Let us
∑
Thus for the observations with equal
wi M i systems XY and EN as shown in
or
weight the most probable value Let isusthesay we have coordinate systems XY and EN
M = i =1 n simple arithmetic mean. There are infigure locating the points a (Xa , Ya)
as shown figure locating the points a (X , Y ) and
∑i =1
wi two basic methods for adjustment of
b (X b
, Y b
) in
and
XY
b (X
system
b , Yb) in XY system a and a
and their
their corresponding positions corresponding
a (Eapositions
,
the observations by this technique,
thus the most probable value is namely the weightedThe arithmetic a (E
Indirect Method ora
, N a
) and
N a) b (E
and b
,
b N(E
b
)b in
, EN
N b) system,
in EN then the
system, scale
mean of the observed values. if the observed values are of
Method of Observation factor
Equations, is given as
then the scale factor is given as
and S = AB/ab
equal weight i.e. w1=w2=w3 = ..... = wnDirect
= w, Method or The Method of
S = AB/ab = (E b - E a ) + (N b - N a )
2 2
Condition Equations.
n
∑
In the Indirect Method, we will have (X b - X a ) 2 + (Yb - Ya ) 2
wi = nw following four steps:
i =1
Step 1: Assume the values N
and for required quantities (the assumed
n n
value may be the observed quantity
∑ ∑
.C
wi M i = w M i , or any other arbitrarily assumed
i =1 i =1
quantity) Eb-Ea
Step 2: Formulate the A
observation equations by applying Nb-Na
Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics - 8, 2066
corrections (vs) to the assumed
43 values
to obtain MPV.
Step 3: Determine the B
residuals by subtracting observed
points known in bo
As derived above
systems of coordin
observation equat
As derived above
A, B and C, as f
observation equati
with added resid
N A, B and C, as fo
1 ycCos xcSin redundant equation
3 with added residu
12 Cos 34 xxcSin
ycSin cCos
aX A equation
redundant bYA + T
.C 2 1 xb x
ycSin 4a xcCos aYAA
aX bXAA++TT
+ bY
= Tan
yb y a aXA B+bX
bYAB ++TT
1 xb xa
aY
Eb-Ea = Tan
1 y Eb ByEa A
A = Tan N N aYBB
aX bXBB ++TT
+ bY
B A
1 E B E A
Nb-Na E =
' = x ' Cos
Tan
N
Ny ' Sin aXB C+bX
aY bYBC ++TT
B A
β ' Sin + yy''Sin
EN' =' =xx' Cos Cos aYCC
aX bXCC ++TT
+ bY
' = x ' Sin + y ' Cos
C + bX C + T
N
3.1.3 Translation
Translation: ForaYleast square
B ItTranslation
is the Translation
It is theTranslation: from E’N’ from square
EN system For
coordinate to EN and add the
least square
system Itcoordinate
T
system to EN system
is the Translation from EN
= E -E =E -E
squarev =
2
and
(aXadd
A the
bY
T = E -E’system=EB-E’to
E
coordinate A A B
B EN system
B
+ (vaY=A (+aX
2
bXA A+bY
TNE= NAA-NAA=N B-NB
TNA
TT E= =EN -E-N’=E =N -E
-N’
E Finally we determine the coordinates
N A A A A B B B B
++((aY
aXA B+bX
bYAB ++TTNE
TN= NA-NA=NB-NB
in EN system as
Finally Finally
we determine we determine
the coordinatesthe coordinates
in EN system as ++((aX
aYB + bY
bXBB++TTEN
y in
E c EN
= T Esystem
+ E 'c = as
T E + x ' Cos y ' Sin
++((aY
aXB C+bXbYBC ++TTNE
E=c T=E T+E S+×ExCos'c = TE + Sx'×Cos ySin y ' Sin
++((aX
aYC bXCC ++TTEN
+ bY
xRotation: = TE + S × xCos S × ySin
b-xa
N c = T N + N ' c = T N + x' Sin + y ' Cos + (aYC + bX C + TN
yb-ya Here we
Rotation: super impose the scaled x + y ' Cos
Herey .c
Rotation:
Herewe we
coordinate
super super impose
impose system the the scaled
over
scaled xEN
N = T +c N=' T
x N c==TcTNN++SNN×' xSin c N= T + x' Sin
++SNx×' Sin yCos+y ' Cos
EN = TifN=we +× SxSin
× xSin S +× SyCos
+SSin × yCos
+NS suppose = b and SCos
ycoordinate
coordinate T
yasystem, so that systemABsystemand ab ofover
over both
ENthe
system,
system
system, so thatso that
coincideABAB andasand ab both
abshown
of of both the if we
inthethe =if we suppose SSin
have b=and btheand SCos
system x coincide as shown in if the
we suppose suppose
a SSinθwe = will
SSin
b and =SCosθ =SCos wewill have the
ageneral
figure below and construct
system coincide as shown in the = transformation an = we
a we will equations
a will have
have theas general the general
figurebelow below general transformation equations as
αfigure
auxiliary andandconstruct
axis system construct
EN an an transformation
coinciding transformation equations
equations as as
b auxiliaryauxiliary
the axisaxis
origin with
systemsystem
the
EN EN
origin coinciding
(shifted
coinciding
E = T E + ax by
the origin with the origin (shifted E =ETE= +TEax+axby by
First, we will change thethe during
scale origin
of XYrotation)
with
systemthe of xy
making system.
origin (shifted
equal
N = TN + bx + ay
during
during rotation)
rotation) of
of xy xy system.
system. 2. N =NTN= +
Transformation TNbx++bxay+ with ay Least
to that of EN system by multiplying each x,y by the scale 2. Transformation with Least
Square Adjustment
2. Transformation with Least
factor S . The scaled coordinates are x’,y’.
4. Transformation
Square
Square Adjustment If morewiththan
Adjustment Least twoSquarecontrolAdjustment
points
If more than two Ifavailable,
aremore
If more
control than than
two
points two
redundancy
control
are control redundancy
available,
3.1.2 Rotation points
exists are
and available,
the transformation redundancy can be using least
existspoints
and theare available,
transformation redundancy
can be computed
Here we super impose the scaled x’ y’ coordinate system exists
computed
exists and and
the the
using transformation
least
transformation square can can
be be
solution.
square solution.
over EN system, so that AB and ab of both the system computed
Let
computed A,using
using Bleast
and least
C are
square square
three solution.
control
solution.
coincide as shown in the figure below and construct an Let A,Let Let
Bpoints
and C known areB
A, A, Binand
three
and both
control
C C the
are are three
XY
points
three control
and
known
control ENin both the
auxiliary axis system E’N’ coinciding the origin with the XY and points
systems
points
EN known known
systems of in
of in
both both
coordinate. the
coordinate. the
XY XYand and
EN EN
systems
As
systems derived
of of coordinate.
above,
coordinate. there will be 6
origin (shifted during rotation) of x’y’ system. As derived above, there will bethere
6twoobservation
As
Asobservationderived
derived above,
equations,
above, there will will
for 6 6equations,
be
be each
two for observation
each
A,
observationBA,and B and C,C,equations,
asasfollows:
equations, twotwo
follows: for
(which
(which
for each
are
each arewith added
residuals
A, A,to
with
B B added
make
and and the
C, C,
as as follows:
redundant
residuals
follows: equations
to
(which (which
make are
consistent.)
arethe
N'
1 ycCos 3 xcSin with with
redundant
added added residuals
equations
residuals to
consistent.)
to make make the the
θ=α+β1 1 ycCos ycCos 3 3xcSin x Sin redundant
redundant equations
aX A bYA + TE = E A + v E A
equations consistent.)
consistent.)
ycSin xccCos
N
2
ycSin 4 4 c
4
x x
Cos Cos aX aX bY + T = E + v
A AbYA +ATE =E E A +Av E A E A
y’ E'c .C
2 2 ycSin
c
aY + bX A + TN = N A + v N A
. = Tan 1 b x x
+ +T = N + v
a A
Y'c x’ aY + A +ATN =N N A +Av N A N A
bX
X'c
c aY bX
x x
byb a y a
2 = Tan
x
x
+ TE = E B + v EB
1 1 A
1 b a
A = Tan
A
aX bY
ybyaEy a + T = E +v
B B
1ybE aX aX bY bY + T E =E E B +Bv E B E B
+ + N = N B + vN B
B B
N'c 3= Tan B A
aYB
bXB
T
θ 1 E BENE A
1 E + + = N +v
B B
TE =Tan = Tan BN E'
B A A
N N aY aY + bX bX + T N N N B +Bv N N B
T=
N B BN A aX C bYC + TE = EC + vB EC
B B
B 4 E ' = x 'Cos Ay' Sin B B
TN
=E'x'==' Cos
x '
Cos y '
Sin aX aX bY + T = E + v
C CbYC +CTE =E EC +Cv EC EC
E'N x ' Sin + y ' Cos
y ' Sin
aY C + bX C + TN = N C + v N C
N ' =N x' =' Sin +y+' Cos
x ' Sin
y ' Cos
+CbX+ bX +T = N + v
E
Translation: aYCaY C +CTN =N N C +Cv N N C
For least square adjustment, C let us
ItTranslation:
is the Translation from EN
Translation: For
leastleast
Forsquare and square
add
square the adjustment,
residuals
adjustment, let let
us us
Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics
It - 8,the
is 2066Translation from EN44 square and add the residuals
coordinate
It is the systemfrom
Translation to EN system
EN 2 vv 2 ==((aX
square and
2 add the residuals
A bY A + TE E A ) 2
2
coordinate
TE= EA-E
coordinate system
A=EB-E
system to
to EN
B
EN system
system
+ (aYA + bX
v = ( aX aX + ATE+ TEE2A )E2 A )
bYAbY
+ N NA) 2
A
TE= TNE=A-E
T E = E A-E
NA-N A=E
A=EAB=N B -E
-EBB-NB
B
A
A T
2
B B N B NB
Sin aX C bYC + TE = EC + v EC
Cos aYC + bX C + TN = N C + v N C
For leastFor
square
leastadjustment, let the
us square
If we adjustment,
square take let and
partial us add theof the
derivative the matrix will be formed as
vthewith
residualssquare and add 0
2
from EN residuals
respect to a, b, TE and TN
EN system v 2
=(aX Aand
bYcompare
the condition
each2 with zero to fulfill
A + TE E A )
of minima we will get (A A) =0 3 0
T
A AX = A L is
T T
a p 0 q r e
( X i N i Yi E i ) f
X = AT A( ) A iL= A, B, C
1 T
AT L = =
Ei b T 1g T 0
(say )
p r q f
( )
=A as ( X i
2
+ Yi ),
X= = A A A L= ×
2
WeIfcan
weget
assume T
NTi E h q r s 0 g
A A from
(Xi 2 +Yi 2) X Y
Y
0
=(X +Y X Y X = i = AT, B, C r q 0 s h
i i
) iand
N
2
( )
2
0 i
A A =
T i
i i i
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4. Approaches for Updating After the digital revolution and the beginning of computer-
Map updating was achieved, at first, by graphical, manual assisted map processing, geographic information entered
techniques only; then computerised methods were a new era a few years ago: with the arrival on the public
developed, aided by peripheral equipment such as scanners market of very-high-resolution digital satellite images,
and digitizers. These interactive methods involve intensive which in theory allows large-scale maps of everywhere
manpower. Today, in the digital and computerised era, to be made while remaining seated in one's office.
updating of digital databases, in theory and in practice, is This revolution in geographic information is in fact a
evolving for a wide range of applications, in addition to combination of many factors such as increasing powerful
mapping purposes. Several methods are in use: establishing computers at a cheaper price, more and more efficient
a new national GIS database, by re-mapping rather than processing software, and the availability of very-high-
digitising existing maps; producing huge, unique and resolution satellite images. Satellite-based digital images
Durgendra M. Kayastha
Survey Department
Data modelling for spatial data is the process of representing In vector system, the object to be modelled will be
phenomena of the real world in a spatial database. There represented using geometric primitives like point, lines
are different approaches of modelling. Basically in all and areas. A point is described by a coordinate pair (x,y)
approaches the phenomena of the real world to be modelled and is designated as a node. A line (arc) by a series of
is identified as entities or objects and then the relationships coordinate pairs {(x1,y1),.....(xn,yn)}. Each coordinate pair
between them are established. Common method of data describes the vertices, the starting and the ending vertices
modelling is using entity relationship approach. In this will be explicitly designated as nodes. A polygon is an area
approach the real world entities are abstracted and the enclosed by the arc(s). In case of a polygon described by
relationships among them are identified. one arc the begin_node and the end_node will be the same.
Because of limitations in entity relational approach in The relations are not explicit hence we need an approach
modelling relationships with complex semantics present to describe relations between spatial objects.
in the entities, other modelling techniques have evolved
Another approach of modelling spatial objects is by using
such as semantic data modelling, and more recently the
simplicial or cell complexes. Simplicial complexes are the
object oriented approach. The object oriented approach
collection of simplices of different dimensions to suit a
has the advantage of abstracting entities more closely to
particular application. When dealing with objects in the
the reality than any of the previous modelling techniques.
plane we have to consider three simplices viz. 0-, 1-,
Further it has a powerful mechanism of inheritance and
encapsulation, which provides transparency to user as well and 2-dimensional simplices. 0-dimensional simplices
as designer of the database by providing modular support are points which do not have extent, 1-dimensional
in evolving database systems. simplices are lines which do not posses lateral extent
and the 2-dimensional simplices are triangles which are
bounded by three 1-dimensional and three 0-dimensional
1. Spatial object simplices.
A spatial object can be modelled as object having spatial With this approach the entire domain space can be
and aspatial attributes. The aspatial attribute although is partitioned. The characteristics of simplicial complexes
also related with the spatial attribute of the objects we do are that any two simplices can meet at the common face
not consider that aspect in this paper. The spatial aspect of only, no overlap of simplices are allowed. Also any
the object is the subject in consideration. simplex will be bounded by its faces except in case of
0-dim. simplex. The faces of a k-dimensional simplex
The spatial attribute of an object may be represented in
are simplices of dimension less than k, this implies that
either vector or raster system. In raster system, the object
will be described by a group of contiguous raster cells 0- and 1- dim. simplices are the faces of 2-simplex, for
at proper location which is implicit as the raster space is example a 2-simplex (triangle) has three 1-simplices and
the regular tessellation of the domain space and each cell three 0- simplices as its faces. Similarly a 1-simplex has
with specific location will describe the object by the cell two 0-simplices as its faces. Cell complex is more general
attribute value. Different objects will have different groups in modelling compared to simplicial complex [Kainz 95].
of raster cells representing respective objects.
Aone domain
spatial but not
region Ainonanother [Kainz 93].
a topological Further, relations
space
A T that
is aarenon-empty
described so far didsubset
proper not consider
A of T the content of
B
where Ao is connected
the intersections; we onlyand usedAthe Ao. This
= concept of empty/non-
implies that A is non-empty i.e. a spatial
emptiness of the 4-, or 9-intersections. If we consider the
- -
- - - - region
contents R2 well
in as is amany
2-dimensional pointbeset
relations could identified such
disjoint contains inside equal that
as if the two regions touch at one pointthese
is homeomorphic to 2-disk. With or have a set of
constraints
noncontiguouson common
the point-set
boundarydefined
segmentsas etc.
a
spatial region the total number of
meaningful relations reduces to eight
- - - - - - 4. Topological
without consideringspatial
the relations in discrete
regions with holes. space Z2
The relations that can be realized are
- - - - - A finite subset of Z2 is called an extended spatial
proper 1.
shown in figure
meet covers coveredBy overlap object. Any two point A and B that belongs to an extended
Figure 1 : Spatial relations between two regions in R2
Theobject E are
eight connectedare
relations if anamely
connected path exists between
disjoint,
Ameet, region A
spatialcovers, on a topological
covered T is a non-empty
spacecontained-in,
by, contains, them in E.
equal and overlap. But the relation between the of adjacent
The connected path means a sequence
proper A of T where
subsetdepends
two sets also onA the
o
is connected
underlying A = Ao.
and topological points
spacefrom A tosame
as the B all lying
two in E. could have
sets
This implies that δA is non-empty i.e. a spatial region in R 2
Corresponding to the definition of neighbours, E can be
is a 2-dimensional point set that is homeomorphic to 2-disk. 4-connected or 8-connected. If there exists a 4-path of finite
With these constraints on the point-set defined as a spatial length between any two points in E then E is 4-connected.
region the total number of meaningful relations reduces Similarly E is 8-connected if an 8-path of finite length exists
to eight without considering the regions with holes. The between any two points A and B in E.
relations that can be realized are shown in figure 1.
The objects in raster space are raster regions, i.e., extended
The eight relations are namely disjoint, meet, covers, covered objects that are bounded. The boundary separates the
by, contains, contained-in, equal and overlap. But the background into two components and every point in the
relation between the two sets depends also on the underlying boundary is adjacent to both the components. Unlike in vector
topological space as the same two sets could have different model where there is no lateral extension of the boundary, in
evaluation of the relation. raster boundary has definite extent i.e. one pixel.
Employing the concept of boundary and interior, many Raster regions, therefore, posses following properties:
queries can be evaluated with minimum of computations.
This will definitely enhance the query processing in overlay - Boundary and interior are non-empty,
operations. For instance if we want to know - if the parcel - The boundary is 4-connected such that each
A is suitable for crop type X, then evaluate the 4-tuple boundary point has exactly two 4-neighbours.
i.e. 4-intersections by using the parcel object and the crop - The exterior of raster regions is 4-connected
X object in different layer. The result will be assessed to such that each exterior point has at least three
provide the semantic meaning of the relation that means we 8-neighbours.
can answer some of the above queries straight away without
Furthermore, extra conditions are added to exclude
resorting to extensive mathematical computations.
degenerate cases of having very small and very large
This 4-intersections approach of evaluating the topological raster regions as follows:
relationship can be extended to 9-intersections by adding - each point in the interior of a raster region must
exterior part of the object as well. The latter approach has have at least three 8-neighbours
the advantage in higher order space; however the result in
- the union of any pair of the raster region cannot
the two-dimension is exactly eight relations.
occupy Z2 completely.
Topological relations vary depending upon the underlying
As per above properties the topological relation between
space and the definition of the spatial objects. Same two
any two raster regions can now be investigated using
objects in different domain space yields different results. For 9-intersections of boundary, interior and exterior of each
instance, a line defined as a closed interval in R1 and a line region. The binary value of each of the 9-intersections
embedded in a plane. Some relations may be realizable in yields 29 = 512 different relations. Enumerating all 512
p a b d c o n m e l k g h f i j
Neighbourhood relation can also be evaluated easily with the help of lattice. We can distinguish
Nepalese Journal on Geoinformatics - 8, 2066
point neighbourhood and segment neighbourhood. Point neighbourhood61 implies all the triangles
sharing point with the area and segment neighbourhood is the set of all triangles that have
common segments with the triangle or the area in concern.
- if glb is one segment then they meet along that needs developing a practical approach, however we note
segment. that the partitioning of the domain space into triangular
facets have already been used in DTM representation.
- if glb is two segments and the glb of those two
But with overwhelming data on a spatial database such an
segments is a point then the two areas meet along
approach of partitioning needs practical consideration as
two connected segments.
regards efficiency and maintenance.
- if glb is a set of two segments and glb of the this
set is empty then the areas meet along two disjoint
References:
segments.
1. Cassettari,S., 93, Introduction to Integrated Geo-
- if glb of the two areas is a set of points and the glb
information Management, ISBN 0-412-48900 7,
of that set is empty then the two areas meet at
252 p.
those distinct points only.
2. Egenhofer,M.J. and Franzosa,R.D. 91,Pointset
Topological Relations, International Journal of
By analogy we can see that given the two areas meet, by GIS, 5(2), pp. 161-174.
analyzing the content of the glb of the two areas we can
3. Egenhofer,M.J. and Sharma,J., 93, Topological
infer about the nature of meet relation. If the glb of the
Relations between regions in R2 and Z2, Advances
two areas which meet are n segments and glb of theses n
in Spatial Databases, Proceedings of the third
segments is empty then they meet at n distinct segments.
International Symposium, Singapore, eds. Abel,D.
If glb of these segments is a set of n-1 points then they
and Ooi,B.C., pp 316-336.
meet along n continuous segments. If glb of the two areas
comprises of segments as well as points, then we have to 4. Kainz,W. et al. 93, Modelling of spatial relations
evaluate the glb of the segments only. Then the nature of with partially ordered sets,International
the situation will be determined accordingly considering
5. Journal of GIS, vol 7(3), pp 215-229.
segments only, this forms part of the situation in which we
have to add number of additional meeting point equal to 6. Kainz,W., 95, Logical Consistency, Elements of
number of points in the glb. spatial data quality, ICA, to be published.
7. Kufoniyi,O. et al., 93, Topologic editing of
relationally structured single valued vector maps,
7. Conclusion
ITC Journal, 1993-4, pp
Spatial relations between objects are the subject of much
8. Pullar,D.V. and Egenhofer,M.J., 88, Toward
concern and in order to maintain the consistency and
formal definitions of topological relations among
integrity of spatial database, interrelations needs to be
spatial objects, Proceedings of third International
constantly maintained on editing activities such as delete,
Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Sydney,
insert, update operations. In addition efficiency in query
Australia, pp. 225-241.
processing needs to be addressed. In order to develop
suitable algorithms all possible relations needs to be 9. Smith,T.R. and Park,K.R.,92, Algebraic Approach
analyzed. When visualized graphically, it seems that all to Spatial Reasoning, International Journal of GIS,
these relations look simple but working with the database vol 6(3), pp 177-192.
in the computer environment all sorts of relations needs
to be explicitly described hence a mathematical formalism
is required to address this problem. [Kufoniyi et al.
93] employed the 4-intersection formalism to develop
necessary algorithms for maintaining consistency in
editing single valued vector map.
Description of spatial relations using an order theoretic
approach based on a simplicial complex seems to be
versatile and more complete despite the fact that creation
of a lattice out of a poset comprising of many elements