1Q:

A. What is our goal in trying to produce programs that do the intelligent things that
people do?

Ans. Goal of AI

• System that thinks like humans.

• Systems that think rationally

• Systems that act like humans

• System that act rationally

B. What is production system and what is it consisting of?

Ans. A production system is computer program typically used to provide some form of
artificial intelligence, which consists primarily of set of rules about behavior. These rules,
termed production, are basic representation found useful in AI planning, expert systems
and action selection. A production system provides the mechanism necessary to execute
productions in order to achieve some goal for the system.

A production system consists of:

1. Match: A set of rules, each consisting of left side that determine the
applicability of the rule and a right side that describes the operation to be
performed if the rule is applied.

2. Database: A knowledge base which contains appropriate information for

solving a problem.

3. Control Strategy or conflict resolver: Which specifies which rule to be

applied and in which sequence and that system must be able to handle the
conflict like if more than one rule matches or none rule matches.

4. Actor: A rule applier

C. How the A* algorithm works?

Ans. In the A* algorithm each node along a path to the goal, generates all successor
nodes and computes an estimates of distance from the start node to goal node through
each of the successors. It then chooses the successor with the shortest estimated distance
 for expansion. The successor for this node are then generated, their distances estimated,
and the process continues until a goal is found or the search ends in failure.

D. In good system for the representation of knowledge, which are the four properties
domain should possess?

Ans. A good knowledge representation mapping allows fast and accurate access to
knowledge and understanding of the contents. It helps us to know about various
facts and relationships. It also helps us in knowing what to represent and what can
be manipulated. They allow following properties access:

1. Referential adequacy: They provide ability to represent all kinds of

knowledge that are needed in a domain.

2. Inferential Adequacy: Ability to change representation structures so that

we can drive new structures out of old ones to infer some new knowledge.

3. Inferential efficiency: Flexibility of representational structures to add some

new knowledge as addition to focus the attention of inference mechanism in
new directions.

4. Acquisition Efficiency: The ability to acquire new information easily is

called acquisition efficiency. The simplest case involves direct insertion,
Manual insertion by some person, of new knowledge into the database.

E. How we choose the Granularity of representation?

Ans. For the representation of the knowledge, what should be our primitives? Should
there be small number of low-level ones or should there be a large number of covering a
range of granularities? The lower the level we choose, the less inference required to
reason with it in some cases, but the more inference4 required to create the representation
from English and the more room it take to store, since many inference will be represented
many times the answer for any particular task domain must come to large extent from the
domain itself.

F. Write State Space representation of a problem.

 Ans. A state space represents a problem in terms of states and operators that change
states. State space approach can be used for solving any problem. Strategies
for state space searching are:-

1. Define a state space that contains all possible configurations of the relevant
object.
2. Initial state must be defined.
3. Explain acceptable goal state.
4. Set of rules that describe the action available.

Using above strategies, we can define various set of rules in production system and
applicable rules in control strategy to find the goal state. We can use this approach
to solve water jug problem.

G. How to deal with uncertainty?

Ans. Any AI system that seeks to model and reasoning in such a world must be able to
deal with this.

In particular it must be able to deal with:

• Incompleteness: - compensate for lack of knowledge.

• Inconsistencies: - resolve ambiguities and contradictions.

• Change: - it must be able to update its world knowledge base overtime

Clearly in order to deal with this some decision that made are more likely to be
true than others and we must introduce methods that can cope with this
uncertainty.

• Symbolic methods

• Statistical methods

• Fuzzy logic method

H. Write different levels of symbolic analysis for natural language.

Ans. Syntactic Processing: Syntactic processing is the step in which a flat input sentence
is converted into a hierarchical structure that corresponds to the units of meaning in the
sentence. This process is known as Parsing. The parsing has two components.
 a. Grammar: It is syntactic facts about the language.

b. Parser: It is procedure that compare the grammar against input sentence to produce
parsed structure

Pragmatic Processing: The role of this step is to translate, when necessary, from the
knowledge-based representation to command to be executed by the system. It contributes
set of constraints e.g. the meaning of the sentence must be consistent with the known
goals of the speaker. For example, in the sentence “Neelu was anxious to get the bill
passed this session, so she moved to able it.’ We are forced to choose the meaning of the
table over the meaning to set it aside for later.

Semantic analysis: The semantic grammar encodes semantic information into semantic
grammar. They use context free grammar rewrite rules with non terminal semantic
constituents. The constituents are categorized or Meta symbols such as attributed, object,
present and ship rather than NP, VP, V and so on.

I. Compare syntactic processing and pragmatic processing.

Ans. Syntactic Processing: Syntactic processing is the step in which a flat input sentence
is converted into a hierarchical structure that corresponds to the units of meaning in the
sentence. This process is known as Parsing. The parsing has two components.

c. Grammar: It is syntactic facts about the language.

d. Parser: It is procedure that compare the grammar against input sentence to produce
parsed structure

Pragmatic Processing: The role of this step is to translate, when necessary, from the
knowledge-based representation to command to be executed by the system. It contributes
set of constraints e.g. the meaning of the sentence must be consistent with the known
goals of the speaker. For example, in the sentence “Neelu was anxious to get the bill
passed this session, so she moved to able it.’ We are forced to choose the meaning of the
table over the meaning to set it aside for later.

J. Compare the model based and case based reasoning.

Ans. Model Based Reasoning: it is based on knowledge of structure and behavior and devices
as system is designed to understand. They are especially useful in diagnosing difficult equipment
problems. The model used in this type of reasoning can either be mathematical model or
component models.

Case based reasoning(CBR): broadly constructed, it is the process of solving new problems
based on the solutions of similar past problems. An auto mechanic who fixes an engine by
recalling another car that exhibited similar symptoms is using CBR. A lawyer who advocates a
particular outcome in a trail based on legal precedent or judge who creates case law is using
CBR. So, too, an engineer copying working elements of nature is treating nature as a database of
solutions to problems. CBR is a prominent kind of analogy making.

SECTION-B

Q2. (a) List and discuss two potentially negative effects on the society of development of
artificial intelligence techniques.

Ans. The process of machine learning involves:

1. Capture Knowledge- Encode knowledge in a “language”. At least two forms of

knowledge.

• Certain- My friend like Jazz, Street plan of Cardiff

• Probable- I can find a suitable CD in Cardiff

2. Search knowledge for solution. Could do this by:

• Enumerating every combination of CD shop, Wine merchant, Newsagent

• Use information about shop location etc; to constrain or search. Our chosen
method.

Because the machine learning involves symbolic representation, acquisition of

knowledge in computers, handling large amount of knowledge, searching the
required objects within stipulates time, natural language processing etc; these
are some factors which are difficult in machine learning.

Negative effect of AI on society:

1. Development of the AI has made the man more dependent on the machine, which
made the man lazier.

2. Militants are using the AI techniques, which is biggest threat in the world. The
attack on the USA, militants used the advanced techniques which is the negative
effect on the society.
 3. The development6 of AI in the medical field is giving new threats to man like
cloning giving negative effect on society.

Q2.(b) Discuss why do you think the problem of machine is so difficult?

Ans.

o Capture knowledge-encode knowledge in a language. Atleast two forms of knowledge.

o Certain- My friend like Jazz, Street plan of Cardiff.

o Probable- I can find a suitable CD in Cardiff.

Knowledge encoding is a difficult task.

Search knowledge for solution. Could do this by:

o Enumerating every combination of CD shop, Wine Merchant, Newsagent or

o Use information about the shop locations etc; to constrain or search. OUR CHOOSEN
METHOD.

Because the machine learning involves symbolic representation, acquisition of knowledge,

representation of knowledge in computers, handling large amount if knowledge, searching the
required objects with stipulated time, natural language processing, etc; these are some factors
which are difficult in machine learning.

Q3. A. Give an instance of the travelling sales person problem for which the nearest
neighbor strategy fails to find an optimal path.

Ans: Travelling Salesman problem: It is a deceptively simple combinatorial

problem. The travelling salesman problem involves n cities with path connecting the
cities. A tour is any path which begins with some starting city.

Many TSP’s are symmetric- that is for any two cities A and B, the distance from A to
B is the same as that of B to A. In this case you will get exactly the same tour length
if you reverse the order in which they are visited – so there is no need to distinguish
between a tour and its reverse and you can leave off the arrows between the tours.

In a symmetric case a 3 city TSP is also trivial. If all links are present then there are
(n-1)! Different tours for an n city asymmetric TSP. Pick any city as the first then
there are n-1 choices, for the second city visited there are n-2 choices and for the
third city visited there are n-3 choices. For a symmetric case there are half as many
distinct solutions and solution database will be very large.
The problem has some direct importance, since quite a lot of practical applications
can be put in this form like NP complete combinatorial problem.

The objective is to find out the minimal distance tour. The exploration of all such
tours required an exponential amount of time. For Example a minimal solution with
only 10 cities is traceable 3,628,000 tours. Cities with 20 or more are not traceable
since a worst case search requires an order of about 23*107.

b. Compare AND-OR Graphs & AO*algorithms.

Ans. AND-OR Graphs:

Useful for certain problems where-

o The solution involves decomposing the problem into smaller problems.

o We then solve these smaller problems.

Here the alternative often involve branches where some or all must be satisfied before we can
progress.

e.g. if we want to learn to play a Frank Zappa guitar solo I could

o Transcribe it from CD OR

o Buy the Frank Zappa guitar Book And read it from there

STEP 1

2 5 1

STEP 2

2 5

3 7
 STEP 3

2 1

5 2 3 7

STEP 4 1

3 6 4

7 5 2 1

AO Algorithm:

o Initialize the graph to start node

o Traverse the graph following the current path accumulating nodes that have not yet been
solved.

o Pick any of these nodes and expand it and if it has no successors call this value
FUTILITY otherwise calculate only f for each successors,

o If f is 0 then mark the node as solved

o Change the value of f for newly created node to reflect its successors by back propagation

o Wherever possible use the most promising routes and if a node is marked as SOLVED
then mark the parent node as SOLVED.

o If the starting node is SOLVED or value greater than FUTILITY, stop else repeat from 2.

Q4.) Write a program to pass values up to the top level of a game tree or graph. Using
alpha beta pruning of the tree.
Ans.

Alpha beta pruning is a search algorithm which seeks to reduce the number of nodes that are
evaluated in search tree by mini-max algorithm. It is a search with adversary algorithm used
commonly for machine playing of 2-player games. It stops completely evaluating a move when
at least one possibility has been found that proves the move to be worse than previously
examined move. Such moves need to be evaluated further. Alpha beta pruning is a sound
optimization in that it does not change the result of algorithm it optimizes.

The benefit lies in the fact that branches of search tree can be eliminated. The search time in this
way can be limited to more promising sub tree, and a deeper search can be performed in the
same time. Like its predecessor, it belongs to the branch and bound class of algorithms.

The optimization reduces the effective depth to slightly more than half than that of simple mini-
max if the nodes are evaluated in an optimal or near optimal order.

During alpha beta the sub-trees are temporarily dominated by either a first player advantage or
vice-versa. This advantage can switch sides many times during the search if the move ordering is
incorrect, each time leading to inefficiency. As the number of positions searched decreases
exponentially each move near the current position, In practice, the move ordering is often
determined by the results of earlier, smaller searches, such as thought iterative deepening.

The algorithm maintains two values, alpha and beta, which represents the minimum score that
the maximizing player is assured of and the maximum score that the minimizing player is
assured of respectively. Initially alpha is negative infinity and beta is positive infinity. When beta
becomes less than alpha, it means that the current position cannot be the result of best play by
both players and hence need not to be explored further.

Q.5.(a) Translate the any conceptual graphs of your choice into English sentences.
English sentence conversion
“ram is eating soup with a spoon”

PERSON: age obje FOOD:

ea
Sham nt ct noodles
t

INSTRUMEN
T

Fork
Q.5.(b) Write the following : case grammar, systemic grammar and semantic grammar.
Case Grammar:
A case relates to the semantic role that a noun phrase plays with respect to verbs and
objectives. Case Grammars use the functional relationship between noun phrase and verbs to
reveal the deeper case of a sentence. These grammars use the fact that verbal elements provide
the main source of structure since they describe the subject and objects. In case grammar, a
sentence is defined as being composed of a proposition P, a tense less set of relationship among
verbs and noun phrases and a modality constituent M composed of mood, sentence, aspect,
negation and so on. Thus a sentence can be composed of
S-> M + P
Where P is twin consist of one or more distinct cases C1, C2……..Cn
P -> C1, C2……..Cn
Systematic Grammar:
It emphasis function and purpose in the analysis of language. They attempt to account for the
personal and social aspects which influence communication through languages. It classifies the
language by three functions which relates to content purpose and coherence.
1. The Ideational Function: This function relates to the content intended by the speaker.
This function provides information about the kind of activities being described. Who the
actors are, whether there are other participants and circumstances related to time and place.
2. The Interpersonal Function: It is concerned with the purpose and mood of the
statements, whether a question is being asked, an answer being given, request being made an
opinion being offered or information given.
3. The Textual Function: It dictates the necessity for continuity and coherence between the
current and previously stated expressions. This function is concerned the theme of the
conversation, what is known and what is newly expressed.
Semantic Grammar: The semantic grammar encodes semantic information into semantic
grammar. They use context free grammar rewrite rules with non terminal semantic constituents.
The constituents are categorized or Meta symbols such as attributed, object, present and ship
rather than NP, VP, V and so on. This approach greatly restricts the range sentences which can
be generated and requires a large number of rewrite rules.
Semantic grammar have proven to be successful in limited applications including LIFER, A
database query system distributed by the navy which is accessible through ARPANET, and a
tutorial system names SOHIE which is used to teach the debugging of circuits faults.
6Q: write down natural language applications of the following: using learning algorithms
to generalize extracted information.
Ans: Natural language provides both theory and implementations for a range of applications. In
fact many applications utilizes text is a candidate for NLP. A most recent application area,
information extraction focuses on the recognition, tagging and extracting into a structured
representation, certain key elements of information e.g. persons, companies, locations,
organizations from large collection of text. These extractions can then be utilized by a large
number of applications like questioning answering, visualization and data mining.
Applications:
1. Story understanding: Much research on hard problems of in-depth story understanding
by computer was performed starting in the 1970’s, interest shifted in the 1990’s to
information extraction and word sense disambiguation. Note that a degree of success has
been achieved on these easier problems, it is time to return to in-depth story
understanding. The application for story understanding discusses some of the major
problems in building a story understanding problem.
2. Question-Answering: in contrast to information retrieval which provides a list of
potentially relevant documents in response to a user’s query, question answering provides
the user with either just the text of the answer itself or answer providing passages.
3. Database Front-end: The natural language front end of the database management
system represents a major involvement in accessibility for non-expert users. NLP
removes key obstacles that keep some people from using computers. Most specially NLP
facilitates access to a database or knowledge base, provides a better interface for user,
facilitates language translation and conversion.
4. Data mining: knowledge base can help in data mining to identify pattern which are
intelligent by applying knowledge. Data mining helps to add domain specific knowledge
using various AI techniques.
7Q: Write down NLP applications of Story understanding, question answering and
Database front end.

Ans: Natural language provides both theory and implementations for a range of applications. In
fact many applications utilizes text is a candidate for NLP. A most recent application area,
information extraction focuses on the recognition, tagging and extracting into a structured
representation, certain key elements of information e.g. persons, companies, locations,
organizations from large collection of text. These extractions can then be utilized by a large
number of applications like questioning answering, visualization and data mining.
Applications:
1. Story understanding: Much research on hard problems of in-depth story understanding
by computer was performed starting in the 1970’s, interest shifted in the 1990’s to
information extraction and word sense disambiguation. Note that a degree of success has
been achieved on these easier problems, it is time to return to in-depth story
understanding. The application for story understanding discusses some of the major
problems in building a story understanding problem.
2. Question-Answering: in contrast to information retrieval which provides a list of
potentially relevant documents in response to a user’s query, question answering provides
the user with either just the text of the answer itself or answer providing passages.
3. Database Front-end: The natural language front end of the database management
system represents a major involvement in accessibility for non-expert users. NLP
removes key obstacles that keep some people from using computers. Most specially NLP
facilitates access to a database or knowledge base, provides a better interface for user,
and facilitates language translation and conversion.
Information has to pass through following converters for getting optimal answer.

Information  extractor  translator  converter  database

4. Data mining: knowledge base can help in data mining to identify pattern which are
intelligent by applying knowledge. Data mining helps to add domain specific knowledge
using various AI techniques.