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DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTONICS

TERM PAPER OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM


MICROPROCESSOR, MICROCONTROLLER&COMPUTER

INTRODUCTION: semiconductor technology of their design


(TTL, transistor-transistor logic; CMOS,
Microprocessors are regarded as one of the complementary-metal-oxide
most important devices in our everyday semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupled
machines called computers. Before we logic), by the width of the data format (4-
start, we need to understand what exactly bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they
microprocessors are and their appropriate process; and by their instruction set (CISC,
implementations. Microprocessor have complex-instruction-set computer, or
functions as the central processing unit RISC, reduced-instruction-set computer).
(CPU) of a computer, providing TTL technology is most commonly used,
computational control. Microprocessors while CMOS is favoured for portable
are also used in other advanced electronic computers and other battery-powered
systems, such as computer printers, devices because of its low power
automobiles, and jet airliners .Typical consumption. ECL is used where the need
microprocessors incorporate arithmetic for its greater speed offsets the fact that it
and logic functional units as well as the consumes the most power. Four-bit
associated control logic, instruction devices, while inexpensive, are good only
processing circuitry, and a portion of the for simple control applications; in general,
memory hierarchy. Portions of the the wider the data format, the faster and
interface logic for the input/output (I/O) more expensive the device. CISC
and memory subsystems may also be processors, which have 70 to several
infused, allowing cheaper overall systems. hundred instructions, are easier to program
While many microprocessors and single than RISC processors, but are slower and
chip designs, some high-performance more expensive.
designs rely on a few chips to provide
multiple functional units and relatively A microprocessor can do any information
large caches. When combined with other processing task that can be expressed,
integrated circuits that provide storage for precisely, as a plan. It is totally
data and programs, often on a single uncommitted as to what its plan will be. It
semiconductor base to form a chip, the is a truly general-purpose information-
microprocessor becomes the heart of a processing device. The plan, which it is to
small computer, or microcomputer. execute—which will, in other words,
Microprocessors are classified by the control its operation—is stored
electronically. This is the principle of general-purpose microprocessor,
“stored program control”. Without a developed in 1974, was the 8-bit Intel
program the microprocessor can do 8080, which contained 4,500 transistors
nothing. With one, it can do anything. and could execute 200,000 instructions per
Furthermore, microprocessors can only second. By 1989, 32-bit microprocessors
perform information-processing tasks. To containing 1.2 million transistors and
take action on the outside world, or to capable of executing 20 million
receive signals from it, a connection must instructions per second had been
be provided between the microprocessor’s introduced. Reductions in both device size
representation of information (as digital and power dissipation are essential in
electronic signals) and the real world achieving these high densities. Smaller
representation. device sizes also allow faster switching
speeds, which in turn permit higher
HISTORY: processor clock rates.
The first digital computers were built in
the 1940’s using bulky relay and vacuum-
tube switches. Relays had mechanical
speed limitations. Vacuum tubes required
considerable power, dissipated a
significant amount of heat, and suffered
high failure rates. Some systems achieved
processing rates up to 1,000 operations per
second. In 1947, Bell Laboratories
invented the transistor, which rapidly
replaced the vacuum tube as a computer
switch for several reasons, including
smaller size, faster switching speeds, lower
power consumption and dissipation, and
Increased density also lets designers add
higher reliability. In the 1960s Texas
circuitry to increase the amount of work
Instruments invented the integrated circuit,
performed within a cycle. On many
allowing a single silicon chip to contain
benchmarks, high-end microprocessors are
several transistors as well as their
two orders of magnitude faster than the
interconnections.
DEC VAX-11/780 minicomputer, a
The first microprocessor was the Intel performance standard in the 1970’s. Key
4004, produced in 1971. Originally distinctions between mainframe and high-
developed for a calculator and performance microprocessor-based
revolutionary for its time, it contained systems often are simply physical size,
2,300 transistors on a 4-bit microprocessor ability to handle large amounts of I/O, and
that could perform only 60,000 operations software issues.
per second. The first 8-bit microprocessor
was the Intel 8008, developed in 1972 to MICROPROCESSOR DESIGN
run computer terminals. The Intel 8008 AND ARCHITECTURE:
contained 3,300 transistors. The first truly
A basic difference between a specify which instruction will be executed
microprocessor and other logic chips is the next; selection is often based on the
functional flexibility afforded by the outcome of a test involving computed
microprocessor’s programmable nature. results. For performance reasons,
Its instruction set comprises the group of implementations commonly segment the
available low-level operations. Each instruction processing into stages and
instruction has a specific binary pattern, or allow multiple instructions to overlap, each
operation code. This operation code executing in a different pipeline stage.
specifies the operation as well as the High-end designs dispatch multiple
location of the operands. A programmer instructions each processor cycle. Since
uses sequences of these low-level main memory access times are relatively
instructions to create a desired higher-level slow, smaller, faster memory units are
function. Therefore the personality of a frequently employed to cache recently
microprocessor-based system can be used portions of main memory, creating a
readily modified without the hardware memory hierarchy. These caches are
modifications usually associated with non- typically an order of magnitude faster than
programmable logic systems. main memory. Separate caches may be
used for instruction and data, or a unified
cache may hold both. Multiple levels of
cache are how a popular solution to the
performance problems created by the
increasing gap between processor and
memory speeds.

CLASSIFICATION OF
MICROPROCESSORS:
A typical microprocessor chip set includes Several functional classifications can be
an instruction control unit, one or more used to classify microprocessors. The
functional units, a set of register, and one different types of microprocessors used
or more caches. Conceptually, the most frequently are as follows:
instruction control unit fetches an
instruction from main memory, interprets 1. INTEL MICROPROCESSORS:
the operation code, and then dispatches the
• 4004 (1970): Intel's Ted Hoff
instruction to a functional unite. The
and Federico Faggin designed
functional unit may again interpret the
and implemented (respectively)
operation code, read the required operands
the first general-purpose
from the register or memory perform the
microprocessor. The 4004
specified operation and store the result in
processor, used in a hand-held
either the register set or memory.
calculator built by Busicom of
Then the process repeats, with the Japan, was part of a four-chip
instruction control unite fetching the next set called the 4000 Family:
instruction. A powerful aspect of
programmability arises from the ability to
o 4001 - 2,048-bit ROM IBM PC and its clones gave
memory Intel a dominant position in the
semiconductor industry.
o 4002 - 320-bit RAM
memory • 80286 (1982) : With 16 MB of
addressable memory and 1 GB
o 4003 - 10-bit I/O shift of virtual memory, this 16-bit
register chip is referred to as the first
"modern" microprocessor.
o 4004 - 4-bit central
Many novices were introduced
processor
to desktop computing with a
• 8008 (1972): The 8008 "286 machine" and it became
increased the 4004's word the dominant chip of its time. It
length from four to eight bits, contained 130,000 transistors
and doubled the volume of and packed serious compute
information that could be power (12 MHz) into a tiny
processed. It was still an footprint.
invention in search of a market
• 80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)
however, as the technology
:The price/performance curve
world was just beginning to
continued its steep climb with
view the microprocessor as a
the 386 and later the 486 --32-
solution to many needs.
bit processors that brought real
• 8080 (1974): The 8080 were 20 computing to the masses. The
times as fast as the 4004 and 386, which became the best-
contained twice as many selling microprocessor in
transistors. This 8-bit chip history, featured 275,000
represented a technological transistors; the 486 had more
milestone as engineers than a million.
recognized its value and used it
• Pentium (1993): Adding
in a wide variety of products. It
systems-level characteristics to
was perhaps most notable as
enormous raw compute power,
the processor in the first kit
the Pentium supports
computer, the Altair, which
demanding I/O, graphics and
ignited the personal computing
communications intensive
phenomenon.
applications with more than 3
• 8088 (1979): Created as a million transistors.
cheaper version of Intel's 8086,
• Pentium¨ Pro (1995): The
the 8088 was a 16-bit processor
newest Pentium has dynamic
with an 8-bit external bus. This
instruction execution and other
chip became the most
performance-enhancing
ubiquitous in the computer
features such as a large L2
industry when IBM chose it for
cache in the chip package, in
its first PC. The success of the
addition to its more than 5.5 gaming and educational
million transistors. software

• Pentium¨ II (1997): The 7.5 • Pentium III (1999): The


million-transistor Pentium II Pentium III processor features
processor incorporates Intel 70 new instructions. It was
MMXTM technology, which is designed to significantly
designed specifically to process enhance Internet experiences,
video, audio and graphics data allowing users to do such
efficiently. things as browse through
realistic online museums and
• Pentium II Xeon (1998): The stores and download high-
Pentium II Xeon processors are quality video. The processor
designed to meet the incorporates 9.5 million
performance requirements of transistors, and was introduced
mid-range and higher servers using 0.25-micron technology.
and workstations. Consistent
with Intel's strategy to deliver • Pentium III Xeon (1999): The
unique processor products Pentium III Xeon processor
targeted for specific markets extends Intel's offerings to the
segments, the Pentium II Xeon workstation and server market
processors feature technical segments, providing additional
innovations specifically performance for e-Commerce
designed for workstations and applications and advanced
servers that utilize demanding business computing. The
business applications such as processors incorporate the
Internet services, corporate data Pentium III processor's 70
warehousing, digital content SIMD instructions, which
creation, and electronic and enhance multimedia and
mechanical design automation. streaming video applications.
Systems based on the processor The Pentium III Xeon
can be configured to scale to processor’s advance cache
four or eight processors and technology speeds information
beyond. from the system bus to the
processor, significantly
• Celeron (1999): Continuing boosting performance. It is
Intel's strategy of developing designed for systems with
processors for specific market multiprocessor configurations.
segments, the Intel Celeron
processor is designed for the The Intel family of Processors
value PC market segment. It
provides consumers great Chip add Dat Addr Spe Transis
Year ed a ess ed tors
performance at an exceptional
Bu Bus (in
value, and it delivers excellent s widt MH
performance for uses such as wid h (in z)
th bits) 100 ON
(in 0
bits PENT 199 64 64 350 9.5
) IUM 9 - MILLI
III 100 ON
8080 197 8 8 2 6.000 XEON 0
4
8086 197 16 20 5- 29.000
8 10 4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS:
8088 197 8 20 4.7 29.000 Historically, the 4-bit microprocessor was
9 7 the first general-purpose microprocessor
80286 198 16 24 8- 134.00 introduced on the market. The basic
2 12 0
design of the early microprocessors was
386DX 198 32 32 1- 275.00
5 33 0 derived from that of the desk calculator.
386SX 198 32 24 16- 275.00 The Intel 4004, a 4-bit design, was the
8 20 0 grandfather of microprocessors.
486DX 198 32 32 25- 1.2 Introduced in late 1971, the 4004 was
9 50 MILLI originally designed for a Japanese
ON manufacturer as the processing element of
486SX 199 32 32 16- 1.185
a desk calculator; it was not designed as a
1 33 MILLI
ON general-purpose computer. The
487SX 199 32 32 16- 1.2 shortcomings of the 4004 were recognized
1 33 MILLI as soon as it was introduced. But it was
ON the first general purpose computing device
486DX 199 32 32 33- 2.0 on a chip to be placed on the market.
2 1 66 MILLI Many of the chips introduced at about the
ON same time by other companies were, in
486DX 199 32 32 75- 2.5
fact, mere calculator chips. Some of them
4 2 100 MILLI
ON were even serial-by-bit devices, which
PENTI 199 32 32 60- 3.3 performed calculations a single bit at a
UM 3 166 MILLI time. The Intel 4004 chip took the
ON integrated circuit down one step further by
PENTI 199 64 32 150 5.5 placing all the parts that made a computer
UM 5 - MILLI think (i.e. central processing unit, memory,
PRO 200 ON
input and output controls) on one small
PENTI 199 64 64 233 7.5
UM II 7 - MILLI chip. Programming intelligence into
300 ON inanimate objects had now become
PENTI 199 64 64 400 7.5 possible. The 4004 was the world's first
UM II 8 - MILLI universal microprocessor.
XEON 600 ON
CELE 199 64 64 400 7.5 In the late 1960s, many scientists had
RON 9 - MILLI discussed the possibility of a computer on
600 ON a chip, but nearly everyone felt that
PENTI 199 64 64 350 9.5 integrated circuit technology was not yet
UM III 9 - MILLI ready to support such a chip. Intel's Ted
Hoff felt differently; he was the first for many applications—plus the advantage
person to recognize that the new silicon- of lower cost. As originally design, most
gated MOS technology might make a 16-bit microprocessors were limited to
single-chip CPU (central processing unit) packages with a maximum of 40 to 48
possible. Hoff and the Intel team pins. This was not due to physical, but
developed such architecture with just over rather to economic, constraints: industrial
2,300 transistors in an area of only 3 by 4 tester of the time was generally limited to
millimetres. With its 4 - bit CPU, 40-pin DIPs. The ancestor of today’s 8-bit
command register, decoder, decoding microprocessors was the Intel 8008,
control, control monitoring of machine introduced in 1972-1973. The 8008 was
commands and interim register, the 4004 not intended to be a general-purpose
was one heck of a little invention. Today's microprocessor. IT was to be a CRT
64 - bit microprocessors are still based on display controller for Data point. Taking
similar designs, and the microprocessor is into account all of its design inadequacies
still the most complex mass - produced and its limited performance, the 8008 was
product ever with more than 5.5 million an overwhelming success.
transistors performing hundreds of
millions of calculations each second - INTEL (8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS):
numbers that are sure to be outdated fast. The 8080, designed as a successor to
Intel’s 8008, was the first powerful
Within a short period of time, the 4004 microprocessor introduced on the market.
became obsolete and was replaced by the Several other microprocessors of similar
4040. Then, the powerful 8-bit performance were introduced on the
microprocessors were introduced at a price market within a year after the 8080
that was only slightly higher than the price appeared, and several additional powerful
of the 4040.Although 4-bit designs were introduced later.
microprocessors played an important role Technically, however, the 8080 long
in the early years of the microcomputer remained the most powerful product on the
revolution, today they are technically market. Furthermore, Intel was the first
obsolete. Because of their extremely low company to invest in the development of
cost, however, they still offer an attractive support chips and software for its products.
alternative to low-end- 8-bit This ensured the continued success of the
microprocessors. In fact, several 4-bit 8080 because its performance was then
chips continue to be among the best sellers sufficient for many applications. The early
of all microprocessors: prime examples are 8080 competitors were introduced with at
the National Semiconductor COP400 and least a nine-month delay and failed to
the NEC uPD75XX series. dislodge it. The 8080 is still sold today
thought It has been largely eclipsed by
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS: successor products—most notably the
Today, 8-bit microprocessors coexist with 8085 microprocessor. Today, the 8085
16-bit microprocessors as the design accounts for roughly one of every four 8-
standard. Although 16-bit chips provide bit microprocessors sold.
higher performance computationally, 8-bit
designs have more than adequate power
MOTORALA (8-BIT performances of the 8080 and the 6800 are
MICROPROCESSORS): The 6800 was similar. A typical instruction is executed
introduced by Motorola as a direct in two microseconds on either
competitor to the 8080. The design of the microcomputer. In the 1990s the number
6800 was obviously inspired by the 8008 of transistors on microprocessors
and the then prevalent minicomputer continued to double nearly every 18
philosophy. The 6800 has essentially the months. The rate of change followed an
same internal architecture as the 8080, early prediction made by American
though there are some differences at the semiconductor pioneer Gordon Moore. In
register level. The internal architecture of 1965 Moore predicted that the number of
the 6800 is equipped with tow transistors on a computer chip would
accumulators. The 6800 has a special double every year, a prediction that has
indeed register (IX) that facilitates access come to be known as Moore's Law. In the
to tables stored in the memory. The 8080 mid-1990s chips included the Intel
does not have an indeed register but is Pentium Pro, containing 5.5 million
equipped with register pairs than can be transistors; the Ultra Spark-II, by Sun
used to provide a similar facility. The Microsystems, containing 5.4 million
6800 instructions reflect the fact that it was transistors; the PowerPC620, developed
introduced after the 8080. They tend to be jointly by Apple, IBM, and Motorola,
somewhat more complex but generally containing 7 million transistors; and the
similar to those of the 8080. Depending Digital Equipment Corporation's Alpha
on the function used in the comparison, 21164A, containing 9.3 million transistors.
either of the two microprocessors can be By the end of the decade microprocessors
said to be marginally faster. The most contained many millions of transistors,
significant different in performance is transferred 64 bits of data at once, and
achieved not by comparing a standard performed billions of instructions per
8080 to a standard 6800—their second. .
performance is essentially similar—but by
considering a faster version of either the MICROPROCESSOR
8080 or the 6800. The 8080 is available in APPLICATIONS:
three versions: the standard 8080A with a
When microprocessors appeared, they
2MHZ clock, the 8080A-2, and the
were first used in computer systems for a
8080A-1 with a 3MHZ clock. The 6800 is
negative reason. In the early 1970’s there
also available in two versions. The
were few support chips and
standard 6800 use a 1MHZ clock.
microprocessors were programmed to
However, the clock rates do not mean that
perform functions that are now done by a
the standard 6800 is twice as fast as the
wide variety of hardware chips. For this
standard 8080A. The clock simply
reason assembling a complete
supplies the pulses needed by the internal
microprocessor-based system required
micro program of the control unit. In the
both hardware and software expertise.
average, the 8080 uses simpler
Only five years later in 1976 companies
microinstructions and requires twice as
realized that microprocessors could be
many microinstructions as the 6800. It
used to build inexpensive personal
therefore uses a faster clock. The overall
computers. It then took several more years microprocessors appear in many everyday
to manufacture computers that were household products, such as microwave
adequate for business and professional ovens, handheld electronic games, washing
purposes. Yet the technology had been machines, programmable videocassette
there all along. (Naturally with time costs recorders (VCRs), and programmable
have diminished and integrated circuits thermostats. Newer cars incorporate
have been improved). Many of the early microprocessor controlled ignition and
microprocessor applications found markets emission systems to improve engine
by accident rather than by design. New operation, increasing fuel economy while
product development had generally been a reducing pollution.
direct result of the dissemination of
technical information. With the continuing progress of LSI
technology, most microprocessor systems
In the early 1970s the necessary actually use multiple processors distributed
combination of hardware and software over several chips. Processors can often
expertise was rarely found outside the be found in the peripheral chips of the
computer manufacturing industry. This system, i.e., the PIO, the UART, or other
was not perceived as a problem, because system chips. This makes the
when microprocessors were introduced, programming tasks more difficult than
the computer establishment saw them only with traditional systems; however, it does
as low-cost processors for simple control result in standardized systems, all of the
applications. In fact, the first 8-bit traditional chips that were merely interface
microprocessor, the Intel 8008, was devices in the past are now fully
designed for direct control of a CRT programmable. Programmed instructions
display. Microprocessors are now used for are sent to these devices by the
controlling virtually every computer microprocessor. These processors,
peripheral that does not require bipolar residing in peripheral devices, should be
speeds. Initially, such applications were considered as slaves.
limited by the relatively low speed of early
microprocessors. But now, with the faster FUTURE TRENDS: Cheaper systems
microprocessors coupled with specialized will result from greater integration of
peripheral controller chips, such as CRT support circuitry within the
and floppy disk controllers, it is possible to microprocessor chip. The trend of
control fast devices such as CRT’s and incorporating larger portions of the
disks. computer system may advance to placing
multiple microprocessors on a single chip.
Microprocessors are utilized in computer Additional processing capacity will
systems ranging from notebooks support abstractions, such as productivity-
computers to small personal computers to motivated object-oriented programming,
supercomputer-class workstations. while maintaining acceptable response
Programs include word processing, times. Higher degrees of system
electronic mail, spreadsheets, animation, integration and additional performance on
graphics, and database processing. Owing a chip will open new arena for
to their low cost and flexibility, microprocessor use, as well as new
products, including speech and pen-based It has many interesting features.
character recognition systems, virtual Compared to the Intel Pentium-III
reality, simulations of other architectures, processor, Intel's Net Burst micro-
compression, and enhanced graphics. In architecture doubles the pipeline
2000-chip manufacturer Advanced Micro depth to 20 stages. In addition to
Devices debuted a 1 GHz microprocessor, the L1 8 KB data cache, the
the fastest microprocessor ever mass- Pentium 4 processor includes an
produced for personal computers. The Execution Trace Cache that stores
high-speed processor contains up to 12 K decoded micro-ops in
approximately 22 million transistors. the order of program execution.
The on-die 256KB L2-cache is
RECENTLY LAUNCHED non-blocking, 8-way set
MICROPROCESSORS: associative. It employs 256-bit
interface that delivers data transfer
• Intel’s Pentium-4 processor: The
rate of 48 GB/s at 1.5 GHz.
Pentium-4 is fabricated in Intel's
0.18-micron CMOS process. Its The Pentium 4 processor expands
die size is 217 mm2, power the floating-point registers to a full
consumption is 50W. The Pentium 128-bit and adds an additional
4 is available in 1.4GHz and 1.5Hz register for data movement.
bins. At 1.5GHz the Pentium-4' Net Burst micro-
microprocessor delivers 535 architecture introduces Internet
SPECint2000 and 558 Streaming SIMD Extensions 2
SPECfp2000 of performance. (SSE2). This extends the SIMD
Currently it is the second- capabilities that MMX technology
performing general-purpose and SSE technology delivered by
microprocessor. The world adding 144 new instructions. These
champion is Compaq/Digital instructions include 128-bit SIMD
Alpha 21264B CPU delivering 544 integer arithmetic and 128-bit
SPECint2000 and 658 28 SIMD double-precision floating-
SPECfp2000 at 833 MHz The point operations.
previous Intel chip, Pentium-III
"Coppermine", had 442 Pentium 4 processor's 400 MHz
SPECint2000 and 335 (100 MHz "quad pumped") system
SPECfp2000 results at 1GHz. bus provides up to 3.2 GB/s of
bandwidth. The bus is fed by dual
PC800 Rambus channel. This 29
compares to 1.06 GB/s delivered
Pentium-4 is the first completely
on the Pentium-III processor's 133-
new x86-processor design from
MHz system bus. Two Arithmetic
Intel since the Pentium PRO
Logic Units (ALUs) on the
processor, with its P6 micro-
Pentium 4 processor are clocked at
architecture, was introduced in
twice the core processor frequency.
1995. Pentium-4' micro-
This allows basic integer
architecture is known as Net Burst.
instructions such as Add, Subtract, planned processors, including
Logical AND, Logical OR, etc. to Digital/Compaq Alpha. This
execute in a half clock cycle. The extraordinary performance results
integer register file runs also runs from an incredibly efficient
at the double frequency. Interesting architecture design that has been
is that this method was firstly continually refined by the Elbrus
introduced by “Elbrus team” in team. Over the decades, it turns
their E2K processor design. The out, it was often far ahead of
E2K design was described in Western rivals, introducing
Microprocessor Report article by cutting-edge techniques such as
Keith Diefendorff in Feb 1999. super scalar design, shared-
(Alexin Pylkin,) memory multiprocessing and
explicitly parallel instruction
computing (EPIC) before similar
• Elbrus E2K: Russian company products or even papers on the
Elbrus International has disclosed subjects were available here. The
the technical details of its Elbrus team, led by a
revolutionary new microprocessor supercomputer architect Boris
E2K. The microprocessor will Babaian (another transcription --
function 3 to 5 times more quickly Babayan), has worked together for
than Intel Merced while still nearly 40 years, mostly for the
running all legacy MS DOS and former Soviet Union's and Russia's
Windows software. Fabricated in a defence establishment. Since 1992
0.18-micron process, the chip the team works in tight cooperation
would run at 1.2GHz and deliver with Sun Microsystems. The same
135 SPECint95 and 350 team has taken a great part in
SPECfp95, yet require only 35 developing Sun UltraSPARC
Watts of power and occupy 126 processor, Sun UltraSPARC
mm2 of silicon. By contrast, Intel's compilers, and Sun Solaris
forthcoming processor, which will operating system. The E2K project
be manufactured in the same is a commercial version of the
process, would operate at design has already been used in the
800MHz, occupy 300 mm2, Russian Space Mission Control
consume 60 Watts, and score only and the Russian Missile Defence
45 SPECint95 and 70 SPECfp95. System. The previous chip was
30 Elbrus technology does not manufactured in February 1998 in
infringe on any Western 0.5-micron process. (Pylkin,
intellectual property and it is Alexei)
protected by 70 US patent • Intel announced new brand name
applications. The technology for its Merced IA-64
underlying the E2k delivers microprocessor – Itanium: So, new
computing performance that HP/Intel microprocessor family
exceeds all other existing and has rather long list of brand names,
code names, etc: Itanium, Merced,
McKinley, Madison, Deerfield,
IA-64, EPIC, P7, PlayDoh, Super-
Parallel Processor Architecture
(SP-PA), Wide-Word. Itanium is
sampling now. Experimental
systems with Itanium samples
inside were demonstrated at last
Intel Developer Forum. Microcontrollers are used in automatically
Nevertheless still it is not known controlled products and devices, such as
about future Itanium performance automobile engine control systems, remote
as well as other metrics. (Pylkin, controls, office machines, appliances,
Alexei) power tools, and toys. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a
MICROCONTROLLER: A separate microprocessor, memory, and
microcontroller (also microcontroller unit, input/output devices, microcontrollers
MCU or µC) is a small computer on a make it economical to digitally control
single integrated circuit consisting of a even more devices and processes.
relatively simple CPU combined with
History: The first single chip
support functions such as a crystal
microprocessor was the 4 bit Intel 4004
oscillator, timers, watchdog, serial and
released in 1971, with other more capable
analog I/O etc. Program memory in the
processors available over the next several
form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also
years.
often included on chip, as well as a,
typically small, read/write memory. These however all required external
chip(s) to implement a working system,
Microcontrollers are designed for small
raising total system cost, and making it
applications. Thus, in contrast to the
impossible to economically computerise
microprocessors used in personal
appliances.
computers and other high-performance
applications, simplicity is emphasized. The first computer system on a chip
Some microcontrollers may operate at optimised for control applications -
clock frequencies as low as 32 KHz, as microcontroller was the Intel 8048
this is adequate for many typical released in 1975, with both RAM and
applications, enabling low power ROM on the same chip. This chip went on
consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). to be found in over a billion PC keyboards,
They will generally have the ability to and numerous applications.
retain functionality while waiting for an
event such as a button press or other Most microcontrollers at this time had two
interrupt; power consumption while variants. One had an erasable EEPROM
sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals program memory, which was significantly
off) may be just nanowatts, making many more expensive than the PROM variant
of them well suited for long lasting battery which was only programmable once. In
applications. 1993, the introduction of EEPROM
memory allowed microcontrollers keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other
(beginning with the Microchip PIC16x84) recognizable I/O devices of a personal
[1]) to be electrically erased quickly computer, and may lack human interaction
without an expensive package as required devices of any kind.
for EPROM, allowing both rapid
prototyping, and In System Programming. ADDRESSING MODES:

The same year, Atmel introduced the first An instruction specifies the location of the
microcontroller using Flash memory. data that it is going to process by using one
Other companies rapidly followed suit, of the existing .for examples; M68HC11
with both memory types. Cost has has the following six different addressing
plummeted over time, with the cheapest modes:
microcontrollers being available for well
• Inherent addressing
under $0.25 in 2009, and 32 bit
microcontrollers under $5. • Immediate addressing
Embedded Design: The majority of • Extended addressing
computer systems in use today are
embedded in other machinery, such as • Direct addressing
automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems. These • Indexed addressing
are called embedded systems. While some • Relative addressing
embedded systems are very sophisticated,
many have minimal requirements for INTERRUPTS: It is mandatory that
memory and program length, with no microcontrollers provide real time
operating system, and low software response to events in the embedded system
complexity. they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the
processor to suspend processing the
current instruction sequence and to begin
an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR
will perform any processing required
based on the source of the interrupt before
returning to the original instruction
sequence. Possible interrupt sources are
device dependent, and often include events
such as an internal timer overflow,
completing an analog to digital conversion,
Typical input and output devices include a logic level change on an input such as
switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or from a button being pressed, and data
custom LCD displays, radio frequency received on a communication link. Where
devices, and sensors for data such as power consumption is important as in
temperature, humidity, light level etc. battery operated devices, interrupts may
Embedded systems usually have no also wake a microcontroller from a low
power sleep state where the processor is thermostats, which periodically test the
halted until required to do something by a temperature around them to see if they
peripheral event. need to turn the air conditioner on, the
heater on, etc.
PROGRAMS: Microcontroller programs
must fit in the available on-chip program Time Processing Unit or TPU for short is a
memory, since it would be costly to sophisticated timer. In addition to counting
provide a system with external, down, the TPU can detect input events,
expandable, memory. Compilers and generate output events, and perform other
assembly language are used to turn high useful operations. Dedicated Pulse Width
level language programs into a compact Modulation (PWM) block makes it
machine code for storage in the possible for the CPU to control power
microcontroller’s memory. Depending on converters, resistive loads, motors, etc.,
the device, the program memory may be without using lots of CPU resources in
permanent, read only memory that can tight timer loops. Universal Asynchronous
only be programmed at the factory, or Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block
program memory may be field alterable makes it possible to receive and transmit
flash or erasable read-only memory. data over a serial line with very little load
on the CPU.
OTHER FEATURES: Since
embedded processors are usually used to For those wanting Ethernet one can use an
control devices, they sometimes need to external chip like Crystal Semiconductor
accept input from the device they are CS8900A, Realtek RTL8019, or
controlling. This is the purpose of the Microchip ENC 28J60. All of them allow
analog to digital converter. Since easy interfacing with low pin count.
processors are built to interpret and
process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they
HIGHER INTEGARATION: In
won’t be able to do anything with the contrast to general-purpose CPUs,
analog signals that may be being sent to it microcontrollers may not implement an
by a device. So the analog to digital external address or data bus as they
converter is used to convert the incoming integrate RAM and non-volatile memory
data into a form that the processor can on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer
recognize. There is also a digital to analog pins, the chip can be placed in a much
converter that allows the processor to send smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the
data to the device it is controlling. In memory and other peripherals on a single
addition to the converters, many embedded chip and testing them as a unit increases
microprocessors include a variety of timers the cost of that chip, but often results in
as well. One of the most common types of decreased net cost of the embedded system
timers is the Programmable Interval as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that
Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts has integrated peripherals is slightly more
down from some value to zero. Once it than the cost of a CPU + external
reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the peripherals, having fewer chips typically
processor indicating that it has finished allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board,
counting. This is useful for devices such as and reduces the labour required to
assemble and test the circuit board.
A microcontroller is a single integrated
circuit, commonly with the following
features: This integration drastically reduces the
number of chips and the amount of wiring
• central processing unit - ranging and circuit board space that would be
from small and simple 4-bit needed to produce equivalent systems
processors to complex 32- or 64-bit using separate chips. Furthermore, and on
processors low pin count devices in particular, each
pin may interface to several internal
• discrete input and output bits, peripherals, with the pin function selected
allowing control or detection of the by software. This allows a part to be used
logic state of an individual package in a wider variety of applications than if
pin pins had dedicated functions.
• serial input/output such as serial Microcontrollers have proved to be highly
ports (UARTs) popular in embedded systems since their
introduction in the 1970s.Some
• other serial communications
microcontrollers use Harvard architecture:
interfaces like I²C, Serial
separate memory buses for instructions
Peripheral Interface and Controller
and data, allowing accesses to take place
Area Network for system
concurrently. Where Harvard architecture
interconnect
is used, instruction words for the processor
• peripherals such as timers, event may be a different bit size than the length
counters, PWM generators, and of internal memory and registers; for
watchdog example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-
bit data registers. The decision of which
• volatile memory (RAM) for data peripheral to integrate is often difficult.
storage The microcontroller vendors often trade
operating frequencies and system design
• ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash flexibility against time-to-market
memory for program and operating requirements from their customers and
parameter storage overall lower system cost. Manufacturers
• clock generator - often an oscillator have to balance the need to minimize the
for a quartz timing crystal, chip size against additional functionality.
resonator or RC circuit Microcontroller architectures vary widely.
Some designs include general-purpose
• many include analog-to-digital
microprocessor cores, with one or more
converters
ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated
• in-circuit programming and onto the package. Other designs are
debugging purpose built for control applications. A
microcontroller instruction set usually has
Support many instructions intended for bit-wise
operations to make control programs more
compact. For example, a general purpose
processor might require several availability of cheap microcontroller
instructions to test a bit in a register and programmers.
branch if the bit is set, where a
microcontroller could have a single The use of field-programmable devices on
instruction to provide that commonly- a microcontroller may allow field update
required function. Microcontrollers of the firmware or permit late factory
typically do not have a math coprocessor, revisions to products that have been
so fixed point or floating point arithmetic assembled but not yet shipped.
are performed by program code. Programmable memory also reduces the
lead time required for deployment of a
Volumes: About 55% of all CPUs sold in new product. Where hundreds of
the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and thousands of identical devices are required,
microprocessors. According to Semi co, using parts programmed at the time of
Over 4 billion 8-bit microcontrollers were manufacture can be an economical option.
sold in 2006.A typical home in a These ’Mask Programmed’ parts have the
developed country is likely to have only program laid down in the same way as the
four general-purpose microprocessors but logic of the chip, at the same time.
around three dozen microcontrollers. A
typical mid range automobile has as many Programming environments:
as 30 or more microcontrollers. Microcontrollers were originally
programmed only in assembly language,
They can also be found in any electrical but various high level programming
device: washing machines, microwave languages are now also in common use to
ovens, telephones etc. target microcontrollers. These languages
are either designed especially for the
Manufacturers have often produced special purpose, or versions of general purpose
versions of their microcontrollers in order languages such as the C programming
to help the hardware and software language. Compilers for general purpose
development of the target system. languages will typically have some
Originally these included EPROM restrictions as well as enhancements to
versions that have a "window" on the top better support the unique characteristics of
of the device through which program microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers
memory can be erased by ultra violet light, have environments to aid developing
ready for reprogramming after a certain types of applications.
programming ("burn") and test cycle. Microcontroller vendors often make tools
Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and freely available to make it easier to adopt
have been replaced by EEPROM and their hardware.
flash, which are easier to use (can be
erased electronically) and cheaper to Many microcontrollers are so quirky that
manufacture. Other versions may be they effectively require their own non-
available where the ROM is accessed as an standard dialects of C, such as SDCC for
external device rather than as internal the 8051, which prevent using standard
memory, however these are becoming tools (such as code libraries or static
increasingly rare due to the widespread analysis tools) even for code unrelated to
hardware features. Interpreters are often
used to hide such low level quirks. • Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH
Interpreter firmware is also available for
some microcontrollers. For example, • MIPS (32-bit PIC32)
BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel • NEC V850
8052; BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8
as well as some modern devices. Typically • PIC (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit
these interpreters support interactive dsPIC33 /
programming. Simulators are available for
PIC24)
some microcontrollers, such as in
Microchip’s MPLAB environment. These • PowerPC ISE
allow a developer to analyze what the
behaviour of the microcontroller and their • PSoC (Programmable System-on-
program should be if they were using the Chip)
actual part. A simulator will show the
• Rabbit 2000
internal processor state and also that of the
outputs, as well as allowing input signals • TI MSP430 (16-bit)
to be generated. While on the one hand
most simulators will be limited from being • Toshiba TLCS-870
unable to simulate much other hardware in • Zilog eZ8, eZ80
a system, they can exercise conditions that
may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will And many others, some of which are used
in the physical implementation, and can is in very narrow range of applications or are
the quickest way to debug and analyze more like processors than
problems. Recent microcontrollers are microcontrollers.
often integrated with on-chip debug
Interrupt Latency: In contrast to general-
circuitry that when accessed by an In-
purpose computers, microcontrollers used
circuit emulator via JTAG, allow
in embedded systems often seek to
debugging of the firmware with a
minimize interrupt latency over instruction
debugger.
throughput. When an electronic device
TYPES OF DEBUGGER: List of causes an interrupt, the intermediate
common microcontrollers as of 2008 there results, the registers, have to be saved
are several architectures: before the software responsible for
handling the interrupt can run, and then
• 68HC11 must be put back after it is finished. If
there are more registers, this saving and
• 8051
restoring process takes more time,
• ARM increasing the latency. Low-latency MCUs
generally have relatively few registers in
• Atmel AVR their central processing units, or they have
• Free scale CF (32-bit) "shadow registers", a duplicate register set
that is only used by the interrupt software.
• Free scale S08
and an ALU. Control Unit (CU), it
directs and coordinates the
operations of the entire computer.
CU fetches the instructions from
RAM and stores it in the
instruction register.

COMPUTER: The computer is an


electronic device performing multilevel
operations on input data and producing
desirable output. The computer is a system
consisting of hardware and software.
Computers can be either a digital or analog
type. Digital computers operate on discrete
numbers 0 or 1 (series of “on” and “off”
switches). Switch “On” corresponds to 1
and 0 to off. (0 Voltage = 0 and 5 V = 1). Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs
Each 0 and 1 is referred to as BIT. Most mathematical operations.
computers use eight bits to represent a
• MICROPROCESSOR: In
number or a letter.
mainframe computers CU and
Architecture: The computer architecture ALU are both separate units but
refers to the design and construction of a since 1971 both units have existed
system: on the same chip. This was the
beginning of the microprocessor
era and PC computers. The quality
of the microprocessor performance
is measured by several parameters.
Two of them are: Clock rate and
word size.

• CLOCK RATE: The


computer has a master clock
• Processor: It is the “brain” of a that determines the speed at
computer. The CPU (central which the microprocessor can
processing unit) consists of a CU execute an instruction. The
speed at which the • RAM – Random Access
microprocessor completes an Memory: It is a temporary
instruction execution cycle is holding area for data before
measured in MHz – and after they are processed.
megahertz (Millions of cycles It is like scratch paper–
per second) or GHz – volatile (after the computer is
gigahertz (Billions of cycles turned off all data is gone). It
per second). consists of thousands of
circuits that each hold one bit
• WORD SIZE: The number of of data. The computer holds
bits the microprocessor can (stores) data in RAM and
manipulate at one time varies copies it to the CPU and from
from computer to computer. A the CPU (processor) back to
microprocessor with a large RAM. RAM is a holder of
word size can process more data and also instructions.
data in each instruction cycle. When the processor turns into
(A 32 bits word size computer a “word processor” the
can process 32 bit data at a instructions for this activity
time.) are copied from the disk to
RAM. 32 MB RAM means
that the RAM can hold 32
million bytes of data.

• CMOS – Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor:
This is a battery-powered chip
that retains data about the
computer configuration when
the computer is turned off.

• ROM – Read Only Memory:


A set of chips containing
permanent instructions about
the “boot process.” Because
RAM is empty at the
beginning of the processing,
• Memory: Memory is one of the
the computer must have a
most important elements of every
separate system for loading all
computer. The computer memory
the instructions to RAM. All
is electronic circuitry that holds
this is done through the
data and program instructions until
“BOOT PROCESS.” The
it is their turn to be processed.
processor performs step by
There are three types of computer
step instructions that are given
memory: RAM, CMOS, and
by ROM. The boot process is
ROM.
therefore a series of in a disk that hold the data
instructions from ROM that Cylinders are stacks of tracks
are preparing the computer to in a disk. Sectors are
perform its work. subdivisions of the platters
and tracks (9 sectors each
• Bus: BUS is an electronic path that stores 512 bytes) and 40
connects the main parts of the tracks usually.
computer. The system bus
transports data back and forth Capacity of hard disk drive =
between the processor and RAM or cylinders x surfaces x sectors
hard disk drive. Data bus transports x 512
data between the processor and
parts of the computer. A 32-bit bus
transports 32 bits of data at a time.
It works like a “normal” bus with
32 seats. (Data bus is a sub-unit of
system bus).

EX. Floppy diskette, CD-


ROM, CD-RW, DVD

OPERATING SYSTEM: Operating


system consists of Set of computer
programs that manage and control
hardware resources and provide an
interface between the user and computer.
Examples: DOS, OS2, WINDOWS,
• Storage: None of the computer UNIX, Macintosh and Linux operating
operations would be useful for system.
practical life if we did not have a
place to store it. The main storage CONCLUSION: This whole conclude us
computer device is the hard disk that microprocessor contributes to
drive. microcontroller and in same fashion
microcontroller contribute to computers.
• Hard disk drive: It consists of With invention of microprocessor (4004)
one or more platters (flat and we go towards the first step of technology,
rigid disks made of which further on further on goes to a fully
aluminium or glass that are equipped Gadget generation.Now, days the
coated with magnetic oxide.) Electronics instrument consist of these
Each platter has a read-write microcontrollers even from a small watch
head associated with it. The to a super computer. I remember about
hard disk drive is formatted Morley Wordings, that technology is
into the tracks, cylinders, doubled in 1X1/2 yrs. Such that a
sectors and groups of sectors. microcontroller used in our PC becomes
Tracks are concentric circles
old in a year. Thanks to the • http://education.yahoo.com/refere
technology....... nce/encyclopedia/entry/micropro

REFERENCES: • http://8051micro.blogspot.com/

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_In • http://trensains.com/data_digital.
tel_microprocessors htm

• http://www.howstuffworks.com/micro • http://www.reference.com/browse
processor.htm /microprocessor

• http://searchcio-
midmarket.techtarget.com/sDefinition/
0,,sid183_gci212568,00.html

• Microprocessor-based control systems


-Naresh Kumar Sinha

• Microprocessor architecture and


programming-William F. Leahy

• http://www.docstoc.com/docs/1048868
6/Microprocessor

• http://microchip-technology.com/

• http://www.pictutorial.net/?
page_id=86

• http://www.chips.5u.com/idxhst.ht
ml

• http://microchip-technology.com/

• http://www.freshpatents.com/Syst
em-and-method-for-processing-
semiconductor-material-using-
radiant-energy-source-
dt20060615ptan20060127293.ph
p

• http://www.chips.5u.com/idxhst.ht
ml

• http://www.tayloredge.com/muse
um/processor/processorhistory.ht
ml

• http://reference.allrefer.com/ency
clopedia/M/micropro.html

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