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CLASSIFICATION OF
MICROPROCESSORS:
A typical microprocessor chip set includes Several functional classifications can be
an instruction control unit, one or more used to classify microprocessors. The
functional units, a set of register, and one different types of microprocessors used
or more caches. Conceptually, the most frequently are as follows:
instruction control unit fetches an
instruction from main memory, interprets 1. INTEL MICROPROCESSORS:
the operation code, and then dispatches the
• 4004 (1970): Intel's Ted Hoff
instruction to a functional unite. The
and Federico Faggin designed
functional unit may again interpret the
and implemented (respectively)
operation code, read the required operands
the first general-purpose
from the register or memory perform the
microprocessor. The 4004
specified operation and store the result in
processor, used in a hand-held
either the register set or memory.
calculator built by Busicom of
Then the process repeats, with the Japan, was part of a four-chip
instruction control unite fetching the next set called the 4000 Family:
instruction. A powerful aspect of
programmability arises from the ability to
o 4001 - 2,048-bit ROM IBM PC and its clones gave
memory Intel a dominant position in the
semiconductor industry.
o 4002 - 320-bit RAM
memory • 80286 (1982) : With 16 MB of
addressable memory and 1 GB
o 4003 - 10-bit I/O shift of virtual memory, this 16-bit
register chip is referred to as the first
"modern" microprocessor.
o 4004 - 4-bit central
Many novices were introduced
processor
to desktop computing with a
• 8008 (1972): The 8008 "286 machine" and it became
increased the 4004's word the dominant chip of its time. It
length from four to eight bits, contained 130,000 transistors
and doubled the volume of and packed serious compute
information that could be power (12 MHz) into a tiny
processed. It was still an footprint.
invention in search of a market
• 80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)
however, as the technology
:The price/performance curve
world was just beginning to
continued its steep climb with
view the microprocessor as a
the 386 and later the 486 --32-
solution to many needs.
bit processors that brought real
• 8080 (1974): The 8080 were 20 computing to the masses. The
times as fast as the 4004 and 386, which became the best-
contained twice as many selling microprocessor in
transistors. This 8-bit chip history, featured 275,000
represented a technological transistors; the 486 had more
milestone as engineers than a million.
recognized its value and used it
• Pentium (1993): Adding
in a wide variety of products. It
systems-level characteristics to
was perhaps most notable as
enormous raw compute power,
the processor in the first kit
the Pentium supports
computer, the Altair, which
demanding I/O, graphics and
ignited the personal computing
communications intensive
phenomenon.
applications with more than 3
• 8088 (1979): Created as a million transistors.
cheaper version of Intel's 8086,
• Pentium¨ Pro (1995): The
the 8088 was a 16-bit processor
newest Pentium has dynamic
with an 8-bit external bus. This
instruction execution and other
chip became the most
performance-enhancing
ubiquitous in the computer
features such as a large L2
industry when IBM chose it for
cache in the chip package, in
its first PC. The success of the
addition to its more than 5.5 gaming and educational
million transistors. software
The same year, Atmel introduced the first An instruction specifies the location of the
microcontroller using Flash memory. data that it is going to process by using one
Other companies rapidly followed suit, of the existing .for examples; M68HC11
with both memory types. Cost has has the following six different addressing
plummeted over time, with the cheapest modes:
microcontrollers being available for well
• Inherent addressing
under $0.25 in 2009, and 32 bit
microcontrollers under $5. • Immediate addressing
Embedded Design: The majority of • Extended addressing
computer systems in use today are
embedded in other machinery, such as • Direct addressing
automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems. These • Indexed addressing
are called embedded systems. While some • Relative addressing
embedded systems are very sophisticated,
many have minimal requirements for INTERRUPTS: It is mandatory that
memory and program length, with no microcontrollers provide real time
operating system, and low software response to events in the embedded system
complexity. they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the
processor to suspend processing the
current instruction sequence and to begin
an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR
will perform any processing required
based on the source of the interrupt before
returning to the original instruction
sequence. Possible interrupt sources are
device dependent, and often include events
such as an internal timer overflow,
completing an analog to digital conversion,
Typical input and output devices include a logic level change on an input such as
switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or from a button being pressed, and data
custom LCD displays, radio frequency received on a communication link. Where
devices, and sensors for data such as power consumption is important as in
temperature, humidity, light level etc. battery operated devices, interrupts may
Embedded systems usually have no also wake a microcontroller from a low
power sleep state where the processor is thermostats, which periodically test the
halted until required to do something by a temperature around them to see if they
peripheral event. need to turn the air conditioner on, the
heater on, etc.
PROGRAMS: Microcontroller programs
must fit in the available on-chip program Time Processing Unit or TPU for short is a
memory, since it would be costly to sophisticated timer. In addition to counting
provide a system with external, down, the TPU can detect input events,
expandable, memory. Compilers and generate output events, and perform other
assembly language are used to turn high useful operations. Dedicated Pulse Width
level language programs into a compact Modulation (PWM) block makes it
machine code for storage in the possible for the CPU to control power
microcontroller’s memory. Depending on converters, resistive loads, motors, etc.,
the device, the program memory may be without using lots of CPU resources in
permanent, read only memory that can tight timer loops. Universal Asynchronous
only be programmed at the factory, or Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block
program memory may be field alterable makes it possible to receive and transmit
flash or erasable read-only memory. data over a serial line with very little load
on the CPU.
OTHER FEATURES: Since
embedded processors are usually used to For those wanting Ethernet one can use an
control devices, they sometimes need to external chip like Crystal Semiconductor
accept input from the device they are CS8900A, Realtek RTL8019, or
controlling. This is the purpose of the Microchip ENC 28J60. All of them allow
analog to digital converter. Since easy interfacing with low pin count.
processors are built to interpret and
process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they
HIGHER INTEGARATION: In
won’t be able to do anything with the contrast to general-purpose CPUs,
analog signals that may be being sent to it microcontrollers may not implement an
by a device. So the analog to digital external address or data bus as they
converter is used to convert the incoming integrate RAM and non-volatile memory
data into a form that the processor can on the same chip as the CPU. Using fewer
recognize. There is also a digital to analog pins, the chip can be placed in a much
converter that allows the processor to send smaller, cheaper package. Integrating the
data to the device it is controlling. In memory and other peripherals on a single
addition to the converters, many embedded chip and testing them as a unit increases
microprocessors include a variety of timers the cost of that chip, but often results in
as well. One of the most common types of decreased net cost of the embedded system
timers is the Programmable Interval as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that
Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts has integrated peripherals is slightly more
down from some value to zero. Once it than the cost of a CPU + external
reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the peripherals, having fewer chips typically
processor indicating that it has finished allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board,
counting. This is useful for devices such as and reduces the labour required to
assemble and test the circuit board.
A microcontroller is a single integrated
circuit, commonly with the following
features: This integration drastically reduces the
number of chips and the amount of wiring
• central processing unit - ranging and circuit board space that would be
from small and simple 4-bit needed to produce equivalent systems
processors to complex 32- or 64-bit using separate chips. Furthermore, and on
processors low pin count devices in particular, each
pin may interface to several internal
• discrete input and output bits, peripherals, with the pin function selected
allowing control or detection of the by software. This allows a part to be used
logic state of an individual package in a wider variety of applications than if
pin pins had dedicated functions.
• serial input/output such as serial Microcontrollers have proved to be highly
ports (UARTs) popular in embedded systems since their
introduction in the 1970s.Some
• other serial communications
microcontrollers use Harvard architecture:
interfaces like I²C, Serial
separate memory buses for instructions
Peripheral Interface and Controller
and data, allowing accesses to take place
Area Network for system
concurrently. Where Harvard architecture
interconnect
is used, instruction words for the processor
• peripherals such as timers, event may be a different bit size than the length
counters, PWM generators, and of internal memory and registers; for
watchdog example: 12-bit instructions used with 8-
bit data registers. The decision of which
• volatile memory (RAM) for data peripheral to integrate is often difficult.
storage The microcontroller vendors often trade
operating frequencies and system design
• ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash flexibility against time-to-market
memory for program and operating requirements from their customers and
parameter storage overall lower system cost. Manufacturers
• clock generator - often an oscillator have to balance the need to minimize the
for a quartz timing crystal, chip size against additional functionality.
resonator or RC circuit Microcontroller architectures vary widely.
Some designs include general-purpose
• many include analog-to-digital
microprocessor cores, with one or more
converters
ROM, RAM, or I/O functions integrated
• in-circuit programming and onto the package. Other designs are
debugging purpose built for control applications. A
microcontroller instruction set usually has
Support many instructions intended for bit-wise
operations to make control programs more
compact. For example, a general purpose
processor might require several availability of cheap microcontroller
instructions to test a bit in a register and programmers.
branch if the bit is set, where a
microcontroller could have a single The use of field-programmable devices on
instruction to provide that commonly- a microcontroller may allow field update
required function. Microcontrollers of the firmware or permit late factory
typically do not have a math coprocessor, revisions to products that have been
so fixed point or floating point arithmetic assembled but not yet shipped.
are performed by program code. Programmable memory also reduces the
lead time required for deployment of a
Volumes: About 55% of all CPUs sold in new product. Where hundreds of
the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and thousands of identical devices are required,
microprocessors. According to Semi co, using parts programmed at the time of
Over 4 billion 8-bit microcontrollers were manufacture can be an economical option.
sold in 2006.A typical home in a These ’Mask Programmed’ parts have the
developed country is likely to have only program laid down in the same way as the
four general-purpose microprocessors but logic of the chip, at the same time.
around three dozen microcontrollers. A
typical mid range automobile has as many Programming environments:
as 30 or more microcontrollers. Microcontrollers were originally
programmed only in assembly language,
They can also be found in any electrical but various high level programming
device: washing machines, microwave languages are now also in common use to
ovens, telephones etc. target microcontrollers. These languages
are either designed especially for the
Manufacturers have often produced special purpose, or versions of general purpose
versions of their microcontrollers in order languages such as the C programming
to help the hardware and software language. Compilers for general purpose
development of the target system. languages will typically have some
Originally these included EPROM restrictions as well as enhancements to
versions that have a "window" on the top better support the unique characteristics of
of the device through which program microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers
memory can be erased by ultra violet light, have environments to aid developing
ready for reprogramming after a certain types of applications.
programming ("burn") and test cycle. Microcontroller vendors often make tools
Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and freely available to make it easier to adopt
have been replaced by EEPROM and their hardware.
flash, which are easier to use (can be
erased electronically) and cheaper to Many microcontrollers are so quirky that
manufacture. Other versions may be they effectively require their own non-
available where the ROM is accessed as an standard dialects of C, such as SDCC for
external device rather than as internal the 8051, which prevent using standard
memory, however these are becoming tools (such as code libraries or static
increasingly rare due to the widespread analysis tools) even for code unrelated to
hardware features. Interpreters are often
used to hide such low level quirks. • Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH
Interpreter firmware is also available for
some microcontrollers. For example, • MIPS (32-bit PIC32)
BASIC on the early microcontrollers Intel • NEC V850
8052; BASIC and FORTH on the Zilog Z8
as well as some modern devices. Typically • PIC (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit
these interpreters support interactive dsPIC33 /
programming. Simulators are available for
PIC24)
some microcontrollers, such as in
Microchip’s MPLAB environment. These • PowerPC ISE
allow a developer to analyze what the
behaviour of the microcontroller and their • PSoC (Programmable System-on-
program should be if they were using the Chip)
actual part. A simulator will show the
• Rabbit 2000
internal processor state and also that of the
outputs, as well as allowing input signals • TI MSP430 (16-bit)
to be generated. While on the one hand
most simulators will be limited from being • Toshiba TLCS-870
unable to simulate much other hardware in • Zilog eZ8, eZ80
a system, they can exercise conditions that
may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will And many others, some of which are used
in the physical implementation, and can is in very narrow range of applications or are
the quickest way to debug and analyze more like processors than
problems. Recent microcontrollers are microcontrollers.
often integrated with on-chip debug
Interrupt Latency: In contrast to general-
circuitry that when accessed by an In-
purpose computers, microcontrollers used
circuit emulator via JTAG, allow
in embedded systems often seek to
debugging of the firmware with a
minimize interrupt latency over instruction
debugger.
throughput. When an electronic device
TYPES OF DEBUGGER: List of causes an interrupt, the intermediate
common microcontrollers as of 2008 there results, the registers, have to be saved
are several architectures: before the software responsible for
handling the interrupt can run, and then
• 68HC11 must be put back after it is finished. If
there are more registers, this saving and
• 8051
restoring process takes more time,
• ARM increasing the latency. Low-latency MCUs
generally have relatively few registers in
• Atmel AVR their central processing units, or they have
• Free scale CF (32-bit) "shadow registers", a duplicate register set
that is only used by the interrupt software.
• Free scale S08
and an ALU. Control Unit (CU), it
directs and coordinates the
operations of the entire computer.
CU fetches the instructions from
RAM and stores it in the
instruction register.
• CMOS – Complementary
Metal Oxide Semiconductor:
This is a battery-powered chip
that retains data about the
computer configuration when
the computer is turned off.
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