Chapter 2

Working Principles of MEMS and

Microsystems

1
This Chapter will present the working principles of various micro sensors and
actuators in microsystems.

● Minute sensors are expected to detect a variety of signals associated

with:
Accelerations (velocity and forces),
Biological and biomedical
Chemical,
Forces (e.g., micro accelerometers and gyroscopes)
Optical,
Pressure,
Thermal (temperatures), etc.

Input samples may be: motion of a solid, pressurized liquids or gases,

biological and chemical substances.
● Due to the minute sizes, microactuators work on radically different
principles than the conventional electromagnetic means, such as solenoids
and ac/dc motors.

Instead, electrostatic, thermal, piezo electric and shape-memory alloys are

extensively used in microactuations.

2
Working Principles for Microsensors

Power
Supply

Micro
Input Transduction Output
Signal Sensing Unit Signal
Element

3
 Acoustic Wave Sensors
Acoustic wave sensor does not related to the sensing of acoustic waves transmitted in
solids or other media, as the name implies.
Primary application of these sensors is to act like “band filters” in mobile telephones and
base stations.
Other applications include:
 Sensing of torques and tire pressures
 Sensing biological and chemical substances
 Sensing vapors, humidity and temperature
 Monitor fluid flow in microfluidics
2 sets of “Inter digital Transducers” (IDT)
are created on a piezoelectric layer
attached to a tiny substrate as shown
Energize by an AC source to the “Input IDT” will
close and open the gaps of the finger
electrodes, and thus surface deformation/
stresses transmitting through the piezo-electric
material
The surface deformation/stresses will
cause the change of finger electrodes in the
“Output IDT”
Any change of material properties (chemical
attacks) or geometry due to torques will alter
the I/O between the “Input IDT” and “Output
IDT.”
The sensing of contact environment or
pressure can thus be accomplished
4
 MEMS AND MICROSYSTEMS

Core elements in MEMSs : a sensing element/or an actuating element and

a signal transduction unit.

Common sensors: biosensors, chemical sensors, optical sensors, thermal

and pressure sensors.

Microsystems:

Sensor Every Where

2007/6/8 P- 5
A Quick view to bridge MEMS/Sensors and SOC

EX1. Pressure Sensor and Read Out SOC

In a pressure sensor, an input signal such as
pressure from a source is sensed by a microsensing element, which may include simply thin silicon
diaphragm only a few micrometers as illustrated in Figures 1.22c and 2,8. The deflection of the
diaphragm induced by the applied pressure is converted into a change of electrical resistance by
micropiezoresistors that are implanted in the diaphragm.
These piezoresistors constitute a part of the transduction unit. The change of electrical resistance
in the piezoresistors induced by the change of the induced maximum stresses can be further
converted into corresponding voltage changes using a micro-Wheatstone

2007/6/8 P- 6
 EX2. Capacitive sensors vs. IC process cross section

Capacitive sensors are based upon parallel plate capacitors. A typical bulk-
micromachined capacitive pressure sensor is shown in figure 4. The capacitance, C, of a
parallel plate capacitor is given by
C =eA/d
e, A, and d are the permittivity of the gap, the area
of the plates, and the separation of the plates, respectively.

Micromachined pressure sensors: review and recent developments

W P Eatony and J H Smith
2007/6/8 P- 7
EX3. Capacitive Sensors vs. Frequency Output

2007/6/8 P- 8
Cantilever Bridge

2007/6/8 P- 9
 A

Cantilever Bridge
A’

2007/6/8 P- 10
2007/6/8 P- 11
A Quick view to bridge MEMS/Actuators and SOC

EX1. Microgripper and Read Out SOC

Using electrostatic forces generated by charged parallel conducting plates or electrodes

separated by dielectric material such as air. Input voltage to the plates from a direct-current
(DC) source can result in electrostatic forces that prompt relative motion of these plates In the
normal direction of aligned plates or parallel movement for misaligned plates. These motions
are set to accomplish the required actions.

2007/6/8 P- 12
 Microsystem
A microsystem is a miniature engineering system that usually contains MEMS
components designed to perform specific engineering functions.

2007/6/8 P- 13
2007/6/8 P- 14
2007/6/8 P- 15
2007/6/8 P- 16
2007/6/8 P- 17
2007/6/8 P- 18
2007/6/8 P- 19
 Air Bag Systems
and an application of inertia sensors

by: Jeff Chalmers

Michael Thai
 Agenda

• What is an airbag system

• Types of accelerometers
• Development
• Packaging
• Safety
• The future
 What is an airbag system?
• Airbags are assemblies consisting of:
– the airbag (made of Nylon)
– inflator modules
– inertia sensors and respective housing
– electrical connectors
– airbag retainer
– the cover you see which usually says
"SRS" on it.
Typical airbag configuration

Courtesy of www.howstuffworks.com
 What happens during a
collision?
• The sudden deceleration of your
vehicle causes 2 SENSORS to send an
electrical signal to the diagnostic
module.
• The diagnostic module self tests to
confirm that a crash event is taking
place.
• Then it allows the signal to trigger
the airbag deployment.
Typical airbag configuration

Courtesy of www.howstuffworks.com
 What is a crash sensor?
• Crash Sensors are the devices that
work with a control module.
• These sensors measure the severity of
the impact.
• They are set up so that sudden
"negative acceleration" will cause
the contacts to close.
 What is a crash sensor?
• A crash sensor is an
accelerometer!
 What is an accelerometer?
• An accelerometer is a device that
measures the acceleration or
deceleration component of a moving
object
 Types of accelerometers
• There are 4 main types of
accelerometers
– Piezoelectric
– Piezoresistive
– Capacitive
– Resonant member

• The most common type for airbag

deployment is the capacitive
accelerometer
 Development
• U.S. Department of Transportation
called for a rapidly inflating
cushion to prevent crash injuries in
the 1980s for automobiles.
• Some of the issues with the
development were:
– Lifespan of compressed air in canisters.
– System operational reliability at various
temperature.
– Safe deployment rate for the airbag.
– Size and available technology for sensors.
 Development
• Limited space required micro
accelerometers.
• There are two types of sensors:
– Impact sensors and safing sensors.
• Impact or forward sensors are located
inside the fenders, some are on the cowl,
some are attached to the core support in
front of the radiator.
• Rear sensors are also known as safing
sensors as their function is to determine
that a crash has occurred.
 Development
• Typical placement of Impact Sensor
 Development
• Typical placement of Impact Sensor
 Development:
Microaccelerometers
• Analog Devices’s ADXL family of
microaccelerometers are widely used for
airbag system.

• A pioneer in the micromachined integrated

circuit industry, Analog Devices produced
the industry's first fully integrated,
single-chip micromachined accelerometer in
1991.
 Development:
Microaccelerometers
• Sample model: AXDL 190
• Size: 5mm x 5mm x 2mm.
• LCC package ADXL 190
ADXL 202AE
• 100g dual axis
• Low cost
• Application in shock,
vibration, automotive,
military and health.
• Two-pole Bessel switched-
capacitor filter.
Packaging
 Safety
• Force of an air bag can hurt those
who are too close to it.
• Researchers have determined that the
risk zone for drivers airbag is 2-3
inches of inflation.
• Need to be about 10 inches away and
secured with seatbelt.
• Children under 12 should ride in the
rear seats.
 The Future
• Small devices, large market:
– $1.26 billion worth of automotive MEMS in
2000,
• Projected growth:
– $2.35 billion by 2004. In 2000,
– 9% of the total micromachine market.
• Analog Devices is tops in sales of
the air bag accelerometer
– 2 million accelerometer devices per month
 The Future
• Nearly all systems in automobiles are
being evaluated for possible MEMS
solutions.
• Yaw rate sensors are among the most
exciting of these new opportunities.
 References
• MEMS and Microsystems, Design and
Manufacture; Hsu, Dr. Tai-Ran
• Mechanical Engineering Magazine,
November 2001
• Advanced Packaging Magazine, April
2002
• Forbes.com
• Edmunds.com
 BioMEMS

The term “BioMEMS” has been a popular terminology in the MEMS industry in
recent years due to the many break-through in this technology, which many believe
to be a viable lead to mitigate the sky-rocketing costs in healthcare costs in many
industrialized countries.

BioMEMS include the following three major areas:

(1) Biosensors for identification and measurement of biological substances,

(2) Bio instruments and surgical tools, and

(3) Bio analytical systems for testing and diagnoses.

41
Major Technical Issues in BioMEMS Products:

(1) Functionality for the intended biomedical operations.

(2) Adaptive to existing instruments and equipment.

(3) Compatibility with biological systems of the patients.

(4) Controllability, mobility, and easy navigation for operations

such as those required in laparoscope's surgery.

(5) Functions of MEMS structures with high aspect ratio

(defined as the ratio of the dimensions in the depth of the
structure to the dimensions of the surface)

Note:Almost all bioMEMS products are subjected to the approval

for marketing by the FDA(Food and Drug Administration) of
the US government.
42
 Biomedical Sensors and Biosensors
These sensors are extensively used in medical diagnosis, environmental protection,
drug discovery and delivery, etc.

Biomedcial Sensors
For the measurements of biological substances in the sample and also for medical
diagnosis purposes.

Input signal: Biological sample (e.g., blood samples or body fluids typically in
minute amount in µL or nL)

Microsensing element: a chemical that reacts with the sample.

Transduction unit: the product of whatever the chemical reactions between the
sample and the chemical in the sensing element will convert itself
into electrical signal (e.g. in milli volts, mV).

Output signal: The converted electrical signal usually in mV.

43
Example of a biomedical sensor:

A sensor for measuring the glucose concentration of a patient.

Pt electrode
Blood sample
Polyvinyl alcohol solution
V H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
i
Ag/AgCl Reference electrode

Working principle:

●The glucose in patient’s blood sample reacts with the O2in the polyvinyl
alcohol solution and produces H2O2.

●The H2in H2O2migrates toward Pt film in a electrolysis process, and builds up

layers at that electrode.

●The difference of potential between the two electrodes due to the build-up of
H2in the Pt electrode relates to the amount of glucose in the blood sample.
44
 Biosensors

These sensors work on the principle of interactions between the

biomolecules in the sample and the analyze (usually in solution) in
the sensor.

Signal transduction is carried out by the sensing element as shown

below:
ANALYTE

Biomoleculer B
B Supply
Biomolecule Layer B B
Chemical
B B B
Optical
Output
Sensor Thermal
Signals
Resonant
Electrochemical
ISFET
Field (Ion Transducer)
Effect Sensitive

45
Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) Network Systems for Biomedic Analysis

46
 APPENDIX For UMC 0.18
Biocompatible CMOS MEMS & Flexible Process
(confidential)

1. SiO2 isotropic release etching

2. Super critical CO2drying
3. Membrane sealing
4. Contact holes opening CMOSMEMS
5. Biocompatible polymer deposition
6. Wafer bonding for substrate transfer
7. Si grinding
8. Biocompatible polymer deposition
9. Debonding Flexible

10. Die separation

11. Wiring
12. Tests (pressures, flow and electrical)

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 48

Wen. 48
 1. SiO2 isotropic release etching
2. Super critical CO2 drying HF VPE equipment needed.

1 2

3. Polymer deposition (membrane sealing)

4. Contact holes opening

3
50um Substrate
10um P-C

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 49

Wen. 49
5. Biocompatible polymer deposition
6. Wafer bonding for substrate transfer (to Glass)

50um Substrate
10um P-C

50um Substrate
10um P-C

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 50

Wen. 50
7. Si grinding

10mm
50mm

7 500mm

8. Biocompatible polymer deposition

9. Debonding

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 51

Wen. 51
10. Die separation
11. Wiring
12. Tests (pressures, flow and electrical)

CKT Sensor

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 52

Wen. 52
 APPENDIX For UMC 0.18
Biocompatible CMOS MEMS & Flexible Process
(confidential)

1. SiO2 isotropic release etching

2. Super critical CO2drying
3. Membrane sealing
4. Contact holes opening CMOSMEMS
5. Biocompatible polymer deposition
6. Wafer bonding for substrate transfer
7. Si grinding
8. Biocompatible polymer deposition
9. Debonding Flexible

10. Die separation

11. Wiring
12. Tests (pressures, flow and electrical)

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 53

Wen. 53
 1. SiO2 isotropic release etching
2. Super critical CO2 drying HF VPE equipment needed.

1 2

3. Polymer deposition (membrane sealing)

4. Contact holes opening

3
50um Substrate
10um P-C

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 54

Wen. 54
5. Biocompatible polymer deposition
6. Wafer bonding for substrate transfer (to Glass)

50um Substrate
10um P-C

50um Substrate
10um P-C

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 55

Wen. 55
7. Si grinding

10mm
50mm

7 500mm

8. Biocompatible polymer deposition

9. Debonding

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 56

Wen. 56
10. Die separation
11. Wiring
12. Tests (pressures, flow and electrical)

CKT Sensor

CMOS MEMS導論 Stella Kuei Ann 57

Wen. 57
 Chemical Sensors
Work on simple principles of chemical reactions between the sample, e.g. ,O2 and
the sensing materials, e.g., a metal.

Signal transduction is the changing of the physical properties of the sensing

materials after specific type of chemical reactions.

There are four (4) common types of chemical sensors:

(1) Chemiresistor sensors.

(2) Chemicapacitor sensors.
Chemically
Sensitive
Polyimide
Input current Output:
or voltage Metal Insert
Change of Resistance
Input Voltage Metal Electrodes Output:
Capacitance Change

Measurand Gas

58
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

(3) Chemimechanical sensors:

Work on certain materials (e.g. polymers) that change shapes when they
are exposed to chemicals. Measuring the change of the shape of the
sensing materials determines the presence of the chemical.

(4) Metal oxide gas sensors:

Sensing materials: certain semiconducting materials, e.g., SnO2 change
their electrical resistance when exposed to certain chemicals.

Measured Gas

Electric Contact SnO2

SiO2
Silicon Substrate

59
 Chemical Sensors-Cont’d

Available metal oxide gas sensors:

Semiconducting Metals Catalyst Additives Gas to be Detected

BaTiO3/CuO La2O3, CaCO3 CO2

SnO2 Pt + Sb CO

SnO2 Pt Alcohols

SnO2 Sb2O3 H2, O2, H2S

SnO2 CuO H2S

ZnO V, Mo Halogenated hydrocarbons

WO3 Pt NH3

Fe2O3 Ti-doped + Au CO

Ga2O3 Au CO

MoO3 None NO2, CO

In2O3 None O3

60
 Optical Sensors
●These sensors are used to detect the intensity of lights.

●It works on the principle of energy conversion between the photons in

the incident light beams and the electrons in the sensing materials.

●The following four (4) types of optical sensors are available:

Photon Energy
Photon Energy
Semiconductor A is
more transparent to R Semiconductor A
photon energy in Junction
incident light
 Semiconductor B
DR
(a) Photovoltaic junction (b) Photoconductive device

Bias Photon Energy Photon Energy

Voltage
Reverse _+ R
Bias p-Material (c) Photodiodes
Voltage
Vout
p n
n-Material Leads

61
(d) Phototransistors Optical Sensors-Cont’d

Photon Energy

Photon Energy
Collector ppn Emitter Collector ppn Emitter

Base Base

Silicon (Si) and Gallium arsenide (GaAs) are common sensing materials.
GaAs has higher electron mobility than Si- thus higher quantum efficiency.

Other materials, e.g. Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) and
Rubidium (Rb) are used for this purpose.

62
 Pressure Sensors

●Micro pressure sensors are used to monitor and measure minute gas
pressure in environments or engineering systems, e.g. automobile intake
pressure to the engine.

●They are among the first MEMS devices ever developed and produced for
“real world” applications.

●Micro pressure sensors work on the principle of mechanical bending of

thin silicon diaphragm by the contact air or gas pressure.

Measured Fluid Inlet

Silicon Die
with
Diaphragm
Cavity Cavity
Constraint
Base

Measured
(a) Back side pressurized Fluid Inlet (b) Front side pressurized

63
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d
●The strains associated with the deformation of the diaphragm are
measured by tiny “piezoresistors” placed in “strategic locations” on the
diaphragm.
R , R , R , R = Piezoresistors
1 2 3 4
●These tiny piezoresistors are made
from doped silicon. They work on the
similar principle as “foil strain gages”
Metal Pad R 4 Metal Pad
R 1
R3
with much smaller sizes (in µm), but
R 2
have much higher sensitivities and
resolutions.
Top view of silicon die

R3 (+ve) R1(+ve)
Wire bond Piezoresistors +
Metal film Vin a Vo
Dielectric layer b
-
R2(-ve) R4(-ve)
Silicone gel

Silicon Metal
Diaphragm Die
Casing
Attach
Pyrex Glass Wheatstone bridge for signal transduction
Constraining
Base or Metal  R1 R 
Header =Vin 
 +R - 

+
o 3
Interconnect Passage for 1 4 2 R3
Pressurized
Medium
R1,R3= resistance induced by longitudinal and transverse stresses
R2,R4= reference resistors
64
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

●Other ways of transducing the deformation of the diaphragm to electronic

output signals are available, e.g.,
Metallic
Silicon Cover
Signal output:capacitance changes (for
Electrode higher temperature applications)

C =e o
Metallic A
V re d
Electrode
Silicon Die
er= Relative permittivity = 1.0 with air eo=
Cavity
Constraint Permittivity in vacuum = 8.85 pF/m A =
Base Overlap area
Measurand D = Gap between plate electrodes
Fluid Inlet Diffused p-type Vibrating beam:
electrode (n-type Si wafer,40 mm wide x
Silicon diaphragm 1200 600 mm long x 6 mm thick)
mm sq.x 100 mm thick
By resonant vibration (for
higher resolutions) Signal Silicon die
output: Shift of resonance (400 mm thick)

frequencies by change of
stresses in lower plate
electrode by applied pressure
loading Pressurized medium Constraint base

65
 Two Common Types of Micro Pressure Sensors
Sensors using piezoresistors:
Small in size Linear I/O relation Temperature sensitive

Sensors using capacitances:

Tends to be bulky Suited for elevated temperature application
Nolinear I/O
relations
Nonlinear• Lower
I/O with plate pressure sensors using electrodes
cost
Electric circuit bridge for converting capacitance changes to voltage output:
C
V = Vin
o (
)D
2 +DC
Variable
C capacitor
Change of Capacitance, pF 14
12
Vo Vin 10
8
C C 6
4
2
0
0
0.5
Gap, micrometer
1
1.5
2
2.5 66
 Pressure Sensors-Cont’d

● Major problems in pressure sensors are in the

system packaging and protection of the
diaphragm from the contacting pressurized
media, which are often corrosive, erosive,
and at high temperatures.

67
 Thermal Sensors

●Thermal sensors are used to monitor, or measure temperature in an

environment or of an engineering systems.

●Common thermal sensors involve thermocouples and thermopiles.

●Thermal sensors work on the principle of the electromotive forces (emf)

generated by heating the junction made by dissimilar materials (beads):
Metal Wire A
Heat
Heat Metal Wire A Cold
Junction i
i V Voltage Output
Hot
i i
Junction
Bead V
Metal Wire B Metal Wire B
Voltage Output

(a) A thermocouple (b) A dual junction thermocouple

The generated voltage (V) by a temperature rise at the bead (_T) is:
V =bD T
where β= Seebeck coefficient

68
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

The Seebeck coefficients for various thermocouples are:

Type Wire Materials Seebeck Coefficient Range (oC) Range (mV)

(mV/oC)

E Chromel/Constantan 58.70 at 0oC -270 to 1000 -9.84 to 76.36

J Iron/Constantan 50.37 at 0oC -210 to 1200 -8.10 to 69.54

K Chromel/Alumel 39.48 at 0oC -270 to 1372 -6.55 to 54.87

R Platinum (10%)-Rh/Pt 10.19 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.24 to 18.70

T Copper/Constantan 38.74 at 0oC -270 to 400 -6.26 to 20.87

S Pt (13%)-Rh/Pt 11.35 at 600oC -50 to 1768 -0.23 to 21.11

Common thermocouples are of K and Ttypes

69
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d

Thermopiles are made of connecting a series of thermocouples in parallel:

Thermocouples

Hot Junction
Region, Th

Cold Junction
Region, Tc
DV

The induced voltage (DV) by the temperature change at the hot junction (DT) is:

V =N bDT
with N = number of thermocouple pairs in the thermopile.

70
 Thermal Sensors-Cont’d
A micro thermal sensor:
3.6 mm

●32 polysilicon-gold thermocouples

32 Thermocouples
16 mm wide
Cold Junction ●dimension of thermopile is:
Region 3.6 mm x 3.6 mm x 20 µm thick
. mm

Hot
6
3 Junction
Region
●Typical output is 100 mV
Diaphragm: 1.6 mm dia
x 1.3 mm thick ●Response time is 50 ms
Top view

Hot Junction
Region
Thermocouples
Silicon Rim
Support
m

02
m

Diaphragm

Elevation

71
Working Principles for Microactuators
Power
Supply

Micro
Output Transduction
Action Actuating Unit
Element

Power supply: Electrical current or voltage

Transduction unit: To covert the appropriate form of power supply

into the desired form of actions of the actuating
element

Actuating element: A material or component that moves with power

supply

Output action: Usually in a prescribed motion

72
 Actuation Using Thermal Forces

● Solids deform when they are subjected to a temperature change (DT)

● A solid rod with a length L will extend its length by _L = α DT, in which
α = coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) – a material property.

● When two materials with distinct CTE bond together and is subjected to a
temperature change, the compound material will change its geometry
as illustrated below with a compound beam:
Heat
a 1> a 2
a1

a2

●These compound beams are commonly used as microswitches and relays

in MEMS products.

73
 Actuation Using Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

●SMA are the materials that have a “memory” of their original geometry (shape)
at a typically elevated temperature of production.

●These alloys are deformed into different geometry at typically room temperature.

●The deformed SMA structures will return to their original shapes when they are
heated to the elevated temperature at their productions.

●Ti-Ni is a common SMA.

●A microswitch actuated with SMA:

Shape Memory Alloy Strip
e.g. TiNi or Nitinolor
Resistance Heating Strip

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base

74
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals

●A certain crystals, e.g., quartz exhibit an interesting behavior when subjected

to a mechanical deformation or an electric voltage.

●This behavior may be illustrated as follows:

Induced Mechanical
Mechanical
Deformation

Applied Voltage,
Forces

V
Mechanical force induced Electric voltage induced
electric voltage mechanical deformation

●This peculiar behavior makes piezoelectric crystals an ideal candidate for

microactuation as illustrated in the following case:

75
 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals-Cont’d

A micro relay or microelectrical switch

Electrodes

V
Piezoelectric

Silicon Cantilever Beam

Constraint Base

76
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces

●Electrostatic Force between Two Particles – The Coulomb’s Law:

tanc
e, r A
Dis onF (with charge q)
acti
Attr F
ulsion
Rep

B
(with charge q’)

1 qq '
The attraction or repulsive force: F =
4pe r 2
where ε = permittivity of the medium between the two particles
= 8.85 x 10-12C2/N-m2or 8.85 pF/m in vacuum (= εo)
r = Distance between the particles (m)

77
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

●Electrostatic Force Normalto Two Electrically Charged Plates:

Length, L

V
Gap, d h, W
Widt

e
e A e WL
●The induced capacitance, C is: C r o = r eo
d d
●The induced normal force, Fdis:
1 eo WL 2
F =- r
2
V
d 2 d
in which εr= relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the two plates
(see Table 2.2 for values of εrfor common dielectric materials).

78
 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces-Cont’d

●Electrostatic Force Parallel to Two Misaligned Electrically Charged Plates:

Fd
Fw

L FL
V d W

●Force in the “Width” direction:

1 eo L 2
F =- r
V
w 2 d
●Force in the “Length” direction:
1 eo W 2
F =- r
V
L 2 d

79
 Applications of Microactuations

Microgrippers An essential component in microrobots in assembly microassemblies and

surgery

Two gripping methods:

Gripping Arms
Closing the The normal plate electrodes - Not
V Electrodes gap,d V practical b/c requiring
more space.

The sliding plate electrodes -

V V Popular method. Can have many
sets to make “Comb drive”
Aligning the actuators
electrodes,DL

80
A Typical Microgripper with “Comb drive” Actuators:
400 µm

100 µm
Drive Arm

Arrangement of electrodes:
10 µm
V
ion Arm
Extens

Closure Arm

Drastic reduction in required

actuation voltage with increase of 160

Required Voltage, v
140
number of pairs of electrodes:
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
Number of Electrode Pairs
40
60
80
100
120 81
 Applications of Microactuations
A niche market in mobile telecommunications and
Miniature Microphones
intelligent hearing aides

Acoustic Wave Input dB = unit of noise level:

(air pressure wave)
dB→ MPa 
P 
dB =20 
 
Po 
Electrical signal output: 10
Diaphragm:
≈1µm thick Backplate (≈2 µm) log 
Air gap (≈2 µm)
_C
where P = Air pressure (Pa)
Acoustic holes Po= Reference air pressure
at threshold sound level
Pressure equalization hole

Most microphones are designed for 20-80 dB in the frequency range of 150-1000 Hz

A major challenge in MEMS microphone design and manufacture is the packaging and
integration of MEMS and CMOS integrated circuits for signal conditioning and
processing

82
Micromotors Applications of Microactuations

Unlike traditional motors, the driving forces for micro motors is primarily the parallel
electrostatic forces between pairs of misaligned electrically charged plates (electrodes),
as will be demonstrated in the following two cases:

Linear stepping motors:

●Two sets of electrodes in the form of plates separated by dielectric material

(e.g. quartz film).
●One electrode set is fixed and the other may slide over with little friction.
●The two sets have slightly different pitch between electrodes
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’ B’
electrodes: C’ D’
Dielectric material
Fixed set
A B
electrodes:
CD
WW

83
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Pitch:
W w+w/3 Step Movements
W/3
Moving set A’
electrodes: B’
C’ Dielectric material
Fixed set D’
A B
electrodes:
CD
WW

●Energize the set A-A’ will generate a force pulling A’ over A due to initial misalignment.

●Once A and A’ are aligned, the pair B and B’ become misaligned.

●Energize the misaligned B-B’ will generate electrostatic force pulling B’ over B.

●It is now with C’ and C being misaligned.

●Energize C’ and C will produce another step movement of the moving set over the
stationary set.

●Repeat the same procedure will cause continuous movements of the moving sets

●The step size of the motion = w/3, or the size of preset mismatch of the pitch
between the two electrode sets.
84
 Applications of Micro Actuations-Cont’d
Rotary stepping motors:

●Involve two sets of electrodes- one set for the rotor and the other for the stator.
●Dielectric material between rotor and stator is air.
●There is preset mismatch of pitches of the electrodes in the two sets.

85
 Applications of Microactuations-Cont’d

●Working principle of this rotary motor is similar to that in linear motors.

A micro motor produced by Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center, Germany:

Rotor
Gear for
Stator transmitting
torque

86
Microvalves
●A special microvalve designed by Jerman in 1990.
●Circular in geometry, with diaphragm of 2.5 mm in diameter x 10µm thick.
●The valve is actuated by thermal force generated by heating rings.
●Heating ring is made of aluminum films 5 µm thick.
●The valve has a capacity of 300 cm3/min at a fluid pressure of 100 psig.
●Power consumption is 1.5 W.

Electric Resistance
Heating Rings
Flexible Silicon Diaphragm INLET FLOW

Silicon
Base

Constraint Base

FLOW
OUTLET
Centerline
87
Micropumps
Electrostatically actuated micropump:

●An electrostatic actuated pump in 1992.

●The pump is of square geometry with 4 mm x 4mm x 25 µm thick.
●The gap between the diaphragm and the electrode is 4 µm.
●Pumping rate is 70 µL/min at 25 Hz.
Deformable
Silicon
Diaphragm
Electrode V

Pumping Chamber
Inlet
Check
Valve

Outlet
Check
Valve Constraint
Base

Low Pressure
Fluid Inlet High
PressureFluid
Outlet

88
Piezoelectrically actuated pump:

●An effective way to pump fluid through capillary tubes.

●Tube wall is flexible.
●Outside tube wall is coated with piezoelectric crystal film, e.g. ZnO
with aluminum inter digital transducers (IDTs).
●Radio-frequency voltage is applied to the IDTs, resulting in mechanical
squeezing in section of the tube (similar to the squeezing of toothpaste)
●Smooth flow with “uniform” velocity profile across the tube cross section.
Piezoelectric coating
with transducer

Flow FV

Flexible Tube
Wall

89
 Micro Heat Pipes
Heat pipes = Closed systems that transport heat from heat source@ higher temperature to
heat sink @ lower temperature. They are often referred to as “Heat pumps.”
Micro heat pipes provide promising solution to effective heat dissipation in micro and molecular
electronics circuits as will be presented in Chapter 12.
●A pipe with triangular
x-section or trapezoidal
(dp≈ 100 µm) is in contacts with heat
source, e.g., IC and a heat sink, e.g., ambient
Heat Source Heat Sink
cool air with cooling air by a fan.
Condenser ●The pipe contains liquid, e.g., Ethanol
Adiabatic Sec tion
●Liquid vaporizes near the heat source
●The vapor flows towards heat sink due to
Evaporator
temperature difference
●The vapor condenses in the motion due to
Cross-Sections
drop in temperature
●Vapor turns into liquid near the heat sink
Heat ●The condensed liquid moves in the sharp
LIQUID
Sink
corners towards the heat sink due to the
Heat
VAPOR
capillary effect
Source ●The liquid vaporizes upon arriving at the
heat sink
Elevation ●The heat transport cycle repeats itself as long
as temperature differences between the heat
source and sink maintain.
90
 Microaccelerometers

●Accelerometers are used to measure dynamic forces associated

with moving objects.
●These forces are related to the velocity and acceleration of the moving
objects.
●Traditionally an accelerometer is used to measure such forces.
●A typical accelerometer consists of a “proof mass” supported by a spring and
a “dashpot” for damping of the vibrating proof mass:
The accelerometer is attached to the
vibrating Solid Body

Spring
k

Mass
M Dashpot
with
damping
Vibrating C

Solid Body

91
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d
The accelerometer is
attached to the vibrating
solid body

●The instantaneous displacement of the mass

Spring
y(t) induced by the attached moving solid body is k

measured and recorded with respect to time, t. Mass

M Dashpot
with
dampin
g
●The associated velocity, V(t) and the acceleration Vibrating
Solid Body
C

α(t) may be obtained by the following derivatives:

t )y(
2
dy (t ) dy (t ) d
V (t ) and a(t ) =
dt dt dt 2
●The associated dynamic force of induced by the moving solid is thus obtained
by using the Newton’s law, i.e. F(t) = M α(t), in which M = the mass of the moving
solid.

_In miniaturizing the accelerometers to the micro-scale, there is no room for the
coil spring and the dashpot for damping on the vibrating mass.

_Alternative substitutes for the coil spring, dashpot, and even the proof mass
need to be found.
92
Microaccelerometers-Cont’d
●There are two types micro accelerometers available.

(1) The cantilever beam accelerometer:

Silicon Cantilever
Beam Piezoresistor

Casing Mass, M

Constraint Base
Constraint Base

Vibrating Base

In this design: Cantilever beam = coil spring;

Surrounding viscous fluid = dashpot for damping of the proof mass

The movement of the proof mass is carried out by the attached piezoresistor.

93
 Microaccelerometers-Cont’d

(2) Balanced force micro accelerometer:

●This is the concept used in the “air-bag” deployment sensor in automobiles

●In this design: Plate beam = proof mass;

Two end tethers = springs
Surrounding air = dashpot

Be
am
Mo
ve
me
Stationary nt
Ac
electrodes ce
ler
Moving electrode at
io
n

●The movement of the proof mass is carried out by measuring the change of
capacitances between the pairs of electrodes.

94
 Microgyroscopes

Gyroscope is a form of accelerometer that measures angular rotation rates.

The change of the rotational speed(Ω) of a solid can induce Coriolis force(Fc).
For a moving solid with a linear velocity v, any rotation at the rate Ω can be
related to the induced Coriolis force Fcby the following expression:
r Ω z
Fc = m v x W Ω z
x
y x V Fc
y
2 rrm = the mass of the
where y Fc
V
y
x
moving solid x
z
z
The sense and direction of the (a) (b)
vectorial quantities in the above
expression are illustrated to the Ω
z Ω z
right x Fc x V
y y
●Gyroscopes can thus be used V
y y Fc
as compass in self-correction x x
navigation systems for ships z z
and aircraft, space crafts, and (c)
Segway human transport. (d)
95
 Microgyroscope Structure

Microgyroscopes are attached to the moving solid structure.

Like microaccelerometers, microgyroscopes use comb-drive actuators and
beam or tether springs to actuate the motion of the proof mass, as well as to
sense and measure the rate of rotation of the gyroscope.
y
Gyro Frame x-Position
y-Spring for
Force
Measurements
Resonator
for Linear Motion
Generation
Proof x-Spring
x x
Mass

Pcell
y-Position

The induced Colioris forces are used to self-regulate the navigation of the moving
structures.
96
End of Chapter 2

97