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1. Introduction to thermodynamics
2. Relevance for atmosphere
3. Global perspectives
4. Heat machines & Geophysics
Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power)
is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and
volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion
of their particles using statistics. Roughly, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics
relates to "movement"; thus, in essence thermodynamics studies the movement of energy
and how energy instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the
need to increase the efficiency of early steam engines.
The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of
thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical
systems as heat or work. They also postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy,
which can be defined for any system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large
ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of
system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions
define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state.
Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials are
useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.
With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their
surroundings. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering,
such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even
black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and
for chemistry, chemical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, and materials
science to name a few.
Quotes
1.1
these experimentalists do bungle things from time to time. But if your theory
is found to be against the Second Law of Thermodynamics I can give you no
hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation." — Sir
Arthur Eddington
• “Isn’t thermodynamics considered a fine intellectual structure, bequeathed by
past decades, whose every subtlety only experts in the art of handling
Hamiltonians would be able to appreciate?” Pierre Perrot, author: “A to Z
Dictionary of Thermodynamics”
• "Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time you go through it, you
don't understand it at all. The second time you go through it, you think you
understand it, except for one or two small points. The third time you go
through it, you know you don't understand it, but by that time you are so used
to it, it doesn't bother you any more." — Arnold Sommerfeld
1.2
1. Introduction to (atmospheric) thermodynamics
1.1 On the atmosphere
The atmosphere is an ever changing fluent layer that circumvents our earth. The
atmosphere constantly exchange heat, forces, and mass between the solid earth surface
and the outer space.
The atmosphere consists of a number of different gases and materials. Many of these
play an important role for setting the structure of the atmosphere. The atmosphere mainly
1.3
consists of nitrogen gas, N2, Oxygen, O2, Argon, Ar, etc. To a smaller extent there is also
carbon dioxide, CO2, Methane, CH4. These latter gases are strongly affected by biological
activity, and by burning of fossil fuels and organic material. Accordingly, the
concentration of these gases varies significantly with time. Notably, they also play an
important role for the radiation budget of the earth although they are not important
directly for the thermodynamical properties of the atmosphere – which is the subject of
this course.
A material of special interest for this course is water, which exist in its all three phases
in the natural environment. Furthermore, the transition between water vapor and
water/ice is very important for many atmospheric processes and describing these
transition properties will be one of the main tasks in this course.
In the physical sciences, atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat and energy
transformations in the earth’s atmospheric system. Following the fundamental laws of
classical thermodynamics, atmospheric thermodynamics studies such phenomenon as
properties of moist air, formation of clouds, atmospheric convection, boundary layer
meteorology, and vertical stabilities in the atmosphere. Atmospheric thermodynamic
diagrams are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development. Atmospheric
thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection parameterizations
in numerical weather models, and is used in many climate considerations, including
convective-equilibrium climate models.
1.4
1.1.3 This course
We will analyze some thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere highlighting the
influence of water – and its phase transitions – on the atmosphere. We will also consider
the main force balances of the atmosphere in this course and the vertical acceleration of
air parcels – this is referred to as “statik”.
For isolated systems, as time goes by, internal differences in the system tend to even out;
pressures and temperatures tend to equalize, as do density differences. A system in which
all equalizing processes have gone practically to completion, is considered to be in a state
of thermodynamic equilibrium.
1.5
In thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in
time. Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than systems
which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analyzing a thermodynamic process, it can be
assumed that each intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium. This will also
considerably simplify the situation. Thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly
as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state are said to be reversible
processes.
1.6
ii. Specific volume (α=∆V/∆M). Is used in the thermodynamic
analysis of meteorology. Notably ρα=1. In principle we can
always use α instead of V in the thermodynamics relation provided
that we change appropriate constants.
c. Pressure (p); Pressure implies the presence of a force perpendicular to an
area A which equals
∆F
i. p= .
∆A
ii. Unit is Pa=1N/m2. Often used is mbar=102Pa=1hPa.
d. Temperature (T or θ); Is relatively complicated. Requires equilibrium to
be defined in a proper way. Uses Kelvin scale (K) or Celsius (oC).
0oC=273.15 K.
i. There are a large number of temperature definitions in
meteorology.
5. Micro variables: Molecular speed, number of molecules etc. Not really considered
in thermodynamics, belongs to statistical mechanics.
6. Equation of state (tillståndsekvationen). An important pile stone of the
thermodynamics is that there exist some well described relations between the
physical quantities P, V, and T. (in meteorology, p, α , T).
a. pV = nR *T : n is number of moles, R*(=8.3144 J mol-1 K-1) universal gas
constant.
i. Alternative form pv = RT , v is molar volume (volume V per mole
n. Avogadros number v=22.414 m3/mol for p0=1 atm, T0=273 K).)
ii. Meteorology: pα = RT , or p = ρRT . R=R*/M (M=molmassa) is
the specific gas constant (specifika eller inviduella gaskonstanten).
a
iii. p + 2 (v − b ) = nR *T . Van der Waals equation. a, b are
v
constants appropriate for each gas.
b. Daltons law: A mixture of ideal gases will behave as an ideal gas. In a gas
containing more than one component, each component add to the total
pressure (for an ideal gas).
i. p k V = nk R *T , thus Volume and Temperature are “global”
quantities.
T T n R*
ii. Total pressure p = ∑ p k = ∑ nk Rk* = n∑ k k
k V k V k n
1.7
iii. For air: pα = Rd T , Rd=287.0 J/K. Specific molmass
Md=R*/Rd=28.97 kg/mol.
iv. Air composition is relatively constant up to 100 km, thereafter it
decreases with height.
Figure text: Mean molecular weight versus height for U.S. Standard Atmosphere.
In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, and as such they do not
depend on the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. Hence, they can be
applied to systems about which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and
matter transfer. Examples of this include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission
around the turn of the 20th century and current research into the thermodynamics of black
holes.
1.8
Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an
equivalence relation.
If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy
The increase in the energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of energy
added to the system by heating, minus the amount lost in the form of work done
by the system on its surroundings.
Second law of thermodynamics, about entropy
The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over
time, approaching a maximum value.
Third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zero temperature
As a system asymptotically approaches absolute zero of temperature all processes
virtually cease and the entropy of the system asymptotically approaches a
minimum value.
My view
• 0’th law: Two systems that are in thermal equilibrium with a third are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
• 1’st law: Energy is conserved. For instance
dv d v2 dz
v ⋅ m = mge z ⇒ m = mg ⇒
o dt dt 2 dt
,
d
( K + P ) = 0 ⇒ K + P = const
dt
Energy is conserved in a mechanistic system, can change
between the kinetic energy of the point mass (energy of motion)
and the potential energy (energy of position).
For system with many particles, it can be shown that we also
consider changes in kinetic and potential energy in the way the
mass centre moves (the kinetic energy of a fictious body with
mass equal the entire system of point masses and moving with
its centre of mass velocity) and in the way the particles move
randomly or disorganized, this thus also represent a kinetic
energy but may represent internal kinetic energy (or
temperature)
Ordered mean motions are easily transferred to internal random
motions. Consider a balloon filled with water. If we drop it will
have a certain mean motion before it strikes the floor. However,
after hitting the floor the mean motion becomes zero and must
1.9
have been transferred to disorganized random motion with zero
net mass transfer. Conservation of energy implies that internal
motion must have increased. In other words mean motion
(external) have been transformed into disorganized motion
(heat). Thermodynamics is a way to describe these processes
with giving an exact description of the entire procedure.
o If a closed system is caused to change from an initial state to a final
state by adiabatic means only, then the work done on the system is
same far all adiabatic paths connecting the two states.
o If there is an exchange of properties between the system and the
outside word, the work will depend on the exact pathway.
o Internal energy.
dU
= Q − W ; Q is heating rate, W working rate. (these are
dt
equal zero for a closed system).
dα
• In general the work is W = p which implies that we
dt
dU dα
often write =Q− p .
dt dt
• It should be noted that we require that ∆x ∆t << v s ,
where vs is the speed of molecules (i.e., roughly the
speed of sound) for the system to be in a reasonable
quasi-stationary state. This feature is always valid for
the atmosphere and is actually well fulfilled in a normal
engine.
dU = dQ + dW
• We need to distinguish between exact differentials
(denoted d) which refers to state variables, and inexact
differentials (denoted d ) that refers to external forcing
parameters.
• 2’nd law: Entropy always increases. (Whatever than means)
The best way to understand energy and entropy – indeed, all concepts, scientific or
otherwise – is to use them in as many contexts as possible, proceeding from the familiar
to the unfamiliar.
1.10
Thermodynamic processes
Thermodynamic potentials
As can be derived from the energy balance equation on a thermodynamic system there
exist energetic quantities called thermodynamic potentials, being the quantitative measure
of the stored energy in the system. The four most well known potentials are:
Internal energy
Enthalpy
Potentials are used to measure energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial
state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as
constant temperature or pressure. Internal energy is the internal energy of the system,
enthalpy is the internal energy of the system plus the energy related to pressure-volume
work, and Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy are the energies available in a system to do
useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed,
respectively.
1.11
1.4 Changes due to heating
Lets us assume that we heat a certain volume of gas. The response may be considered
from the response in time or as ordinary differentials. Personally I do think that it is
easier to consider changes in time than in differentials. Let us write
dU dα
Q= +p
dt dt
The internal energy U for a simple closed system such as a gas may be considered s
function of the two independent variables, temperature T and volume V, while the third
variable p is related to these two by the ideal gas law.
1.12
cv
Cv = .
m
dU R dT RT dp dU dT RT dp
Q= + p − 2 = +R −
dt p dt p dt dt dt p dt
dU dT dT RT dp
= +R −
dT dt dt p dt
under constant pressure we find
dT dT
Q = (Cv + R ) = Cp
dt dt .
C p = Cv + R
We thus find that the heat capacity (or resistance to become warm when heated) is
larger under constant pressure than under constant volume. To show that cp greater than
cv makes physical sense, consider an ideal gas confined to a cylinder fitted with the usual
frictionless nut tightly fitted piston. Fix the piston in place and heat the gas for a certain
amount of time. The temperature of the gas rises in this constant volume process. Now let
the piston move freely so that gas pressure is constant. Heat the gas for the same amount
of time a before. Again the temperature increases, but in this process the piston rises; thus
work is done by the gas and consequently its internal energy doesn’t increase as much as
before. This implies that the temperature increase isn’t as great. Stated another way, cp is
greater than cv, which is consistent with what we derived.
1.13
For liquids and solid material the compressibility (implying that pdα≈0) is essentially
zero and thus
C p ≈ Cv .
1.14
For constant pressure we have that the heat capacity (at constant volume) is
∂H
Cp =
∂T
Its relevance is clear from the following equation appearing for constant volume.
dT
Q = CP , p=const.
dt
Using the definition of entalphy (and conidering the independent variables to be T and
p)
H = U + pα
H (T , p ) = U (T , α ) + pα
∂H dT ∂H dp ∂U dT ∂U dα dp dα
+ = + +α +p
∂T dt ∂P dt ∂T dt ∂α dt dt dt
dα ∂α dp ∂α dT
α = α ( p, T ) ⇒ = +
dt ∂p dt ∂T dt
∂H ∂U ∂U ∂α ∂α dT ∂H ∂U ∂α dα dp
− − −p + −V −p =0
∂T ∂T ∂α ∂T ∂T dt ∂P ∂α ∂p dp dt
thus
∂U ∂α ∂α
C p = Cv + +p
∂α ∂T ∂T ∂U
, ideal gas = 0 (Joules law).
∂α ∂α
C p = Cv + p = Cv + R
∂T
Note that the intermolecular forces are negligible in an ideal law. Joules law can be
showed in experiments where a chamber is split in two parts. The left part has a certain
pressure and the right volume has no pressure. If the wall is removed gas will go from left
to the right side. There is no exchange of heat, no work done and thus the internal energy
must remain constant.
∂U ∂α ∂α
Joules law and the expression C p = Cv + +p will be considered in later
∂α ∂T ∂T
sections. However, to pave the way forward we need to introduce the concept entropy,
which is done in section 3.
1.15
with work done by the system on the atmosphere which is the product of the pressure
times the volume. The term enthalpy is composed of the prefix en-, meaning to "put
into", plus the Greek suffix -thalpein, meaning "to heat".
Enthalpy is a quantifiable state function, and the total enthalpy of a system cannot be
measured directly; the enthalpy change of a system is measured instead. A possible
interpretation of enthalpy is as follows. Imagine we are to create the system out of
nothing, then, in addition to supplying the internal energy U for the system, we need to
do work to push the atmosphere away in order to make room for the system. Assuming
the environment is at some constant pressure P, this mechanical work required is just PV
where V is the volume of the system. Therefore, colloquially, enthalpy is the total amount
of energy one needs to provide to create the system and then place it in the atmosphere.
Conversely, if the system is annihilated, the energy extracted is not just U, but also the
work done by the atmosphere as it collapses to fill the space previously occupied by the
system, which is PV.
1.16