Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Buildings and
Climate Change
Summary for Decision-Makers
r o g r a m m e
P
n v i r o n m e n t
E
a t i o n s
N
n i t e d
U
Design and layout by Thad Mermer, the Graphic Environment • http://www.tge.ca
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for
educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright
holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate
receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.
No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial
purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations
Environment Programme.
Disclaimer
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of the United Nations Environment Programme
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or UNEP
area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views expressed promotes environ-
do not necessarily represent the decision or the mentally sound practices
stated policy of the United Nations Environment
Programme, nor does citing of trade names or globally and in its own activities.
commercial processes constitute endorsement. This publication is printed on 100%
recycled paper, using vegetable-based
ink and other eco-friendly practices. Our
distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s
carbon footprint.
Buildings and
Climate Change
Summary for Decision-Makers
Sustainable Buildings
& Climate Initiative
UNEP DTIE
Sustainable Consumption &
Production Branch
15 Rue de Milan
75441 Paris CEDEX 09, France
Tel: +33 1 4437 1450
Fax: +33 1 4437 1474
E-mail: unep.tie@unep.org
www.unep.fr/scp/sun
1
Preface
Preface
Today, it is widely accepted that human activities They need to make the mitigation of greenhouse gas
are contributing to climate change. The Fourth emissions from buildings the cornerstone of every
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental national climate change strategy.
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated that
between 1970 and 2004, global greenhouse gas This Summary for Decision-Makers presents the
emissions due to human activities rose by 70 current state of thinking on how the potential for
percent (IPCC, 2007). While the full implications of greenhouse gas emission reductions in buildings
climate change are not fully understood, scientific can be realized. It has been compiled by the
evidence suggests that it is a causal factor in rising Sustainable Building and Climate Initiative (SBCI),
sea levels, increased occurrence of severe weather a UNEP-hosted partnership between the UN and
events, food shortages, changing patterns of public and private stakeholders in the Building
disease, severe water shortages and the loss of Sector, which promotes sustainable building
tropical forests. Most experts agree that over the practices globally. One of UNEP-SBCI’s key
next few decades, the world will undergo potentially objectives is to ensure that Parties to the United
dangerous changes in climate, which will have a Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
significant impact on almost every aspect of our (UNFCCC) have the information needed to support
environment, economies and societies. the mitigation of building-related greenhouse
gas emissions. This report is based on research
It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute conducted by the UNEP-SBCI under the guidance
as much as one third of total global greenhouse of its Climate Change Think Tank and in cooperation
gas emissions, primarily through the use of fossil with the Finnish research institute VTT, the Central
fuels during their operational phase. Past efforts to European University in Hungary, the Marrakech Task
address these emissions have had a mixed record Force of Sustainable Buildings and Construction,
of success, although there are many examples and the UNEP Risø Centre on Energy, Climate
which show that carefully considered and properly and Sustainable Development. The results of this
funded policies can achieve significant reductions. research have been published in three reports:
The new international agreement which will be Buildings and Climate Change – Status, Challenges
negotiated at Copenhagen in December 2009 and Opportunities (UNEP, 2007a), Assessment
provides decision-makers with an unprecedented of Policy Instruments for Reducing Greenhouse
opportunity to incorporate emissions from buildings Gas Emissions from Buildings (UNEP, 2007),
into a global strategy on climate change. However, and The Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development
if the desired targets for greenhouse gas emissions Mechanism and the Building Sector (UNEP, 2008).
reduction are to be met, Decision-Makers have to UNEP-SBCI will continue to facilitate and support
tackle emissions from the Building Sector with much the implementation of these recommendations,
greater seriousness and vigor than they have to date. and welcomes other stakeholders and interested
partners to join it in this endeavor.
2
Foreword
Foreword
In forty years we need to have reduced our emissions. Doing so can create jobs, save money
greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50% to – and most importantly, shape a built environment
avoid the worst-case scenarios of climate change. that is a net positive environmental influence – not
In eleven years we need to have achieved at least simply a ‘less-bad’ version of what we currently
a 25% reduction in emissions. In three years the have. Indeed, cost effective emission reductions
current global framework that sets legally binding and energy savings of more than 30% are possible in
targets for national emissions, and provides the many countries. Investing in achieving such results
architecture for global carbon trading – the Kyoto in the building sector also has the potential to boost
Protocol - will expire. In December 2009 the the local economy and improve living conditions,
world’s nations are gathered in Copenhagen to particularly for low-income communities.
negotiate an agreement on a new global protocol
that will enable humanity to achieve the necessary This report – Buildings & Climate Change: A
global targets. The challenge is great, but so are Summary for Decision-makers draws together
the opportunities. the findings of three years of research by UNEP’s
Sustainable Buildings & Climate Initiative (SBCI) and
The building sector contributes up to 30% of global it’s partners. It sets out priority actions that can be
annual green house gas emissions and consumes taken by policy makers and industry stakeholders
up to 40% of all energy. Given the massive growth locally, regionally and globally to deliver economically
in new construction in economies in transition, beneficial and significant reductions in building-re-
and the inefficiencies of existing building stock lated greenhouse gas emissions.
worldwide, if nothing is done, greenhouse gas
emissions from buildings will more than double in the One of UNEP-SBCI’s key objectives is to ensure
next 20 years. Therefore, if targets for greenhouse that Parties to the United Nations Framework
gas emissions reduction are to be met, it is clear Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have
that decision-makers must tackle emissions from the information needed to support the mitigation
the building sector. Mitigation of greenhouse gas of building-related greenhouse gas emissions.
emissions from buildings must be a cornerstone of SBCI’s Industry stakeholders are already showing
every national climate change strategy. leadership and producing results. Buildings &
Climate Change: A Summary for Decision-makers
The world’s governments can successfully tackle presents a strategic approach to harnessing this
climate change by harnessing the capacity of capacity. The challenge now is for all nations to
the building sector to significantly reduce GHG support their building industries by mainstreaming
energy efficient and low-GHG emissions building.
Sylvie Lemmet
Director
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics
UNEP
3
Key Messages and Priorities for COP 15
1 2
The building sector has the most Countries will not meet emission
potential for delivering significant reduction targets without supporting
and cost-effective GHG emission energy efficiency gains in the building
reductions. sector.
3 4
Proven policies, technologies and The building industry is committed to
knowledge already exist to deliver action and in many countries is already
deep cuts in building related GHG playing a leading role.
emissions.
5 6
Failure to encourage energy-efficiency
Significant co-benefits including
and low-carbon when building new
employment will be created by policies
or retrofitting will lock countries into
that encourage energy efficient and
the disadvantages of poor performing
low-emission building activity.
buildings for decades.
4 priorities to be addressed
1 2
Supporting energy efficiency and GHG
Prioritise the building sector as key
emission reduction programmes in the
to meeting national GHG emission
building sector must be recognised as
reduction targets.
a NAMA.
3 4
Develop baselines for building-related
CDM must be reformed to support
GHG emissions using a consistent
investment in energy efficient building
international approach to performance
programmes in developing countries.
monitoring and reporting.
4
Contents
Table of Contents
Eight Key Messages for Decision-makers 6
1 The Contribution of Buildings to Climate Change 8
2 “Building Blocks” for Developing Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies for the Building Sector 16
3 Policy Options for Reducing Emissions from Buildings 22
Target 1: Improve the Energy Efficiency of Buildings 23
Target 2: Improve the Energy Efficiency of Household and Business Appliances 27
Target 3: Encourage Energy Generation and Distribution Companies to Support
Emission Reductions in the Building Sector 29
Target 4: Changes in Attitudes and Behavior 32
Target 5: Substituting Fossil Fuels with Renewable Energies in Buildings 34
4 International Cooperation for Emission Reductions from Buildings 38
Six Actions to Urgently Consider for the Post-Kyoto Agreement 42
5 Conclusions and Priority Actions for Creating a Carbon Neutral Buildings Sector 44
National and International Policy Makers 46
Municipalities 47
NGOs and Civil Society 47
Private Sector 48
Research and Education Institutions 48
A Final Word 49
6 Bibliography 50
Acknowledgements 56
List of Tables
Table 1. Major Barriers to Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector. 12
Table 2. Summary Table of Policies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Building Sector 24
Table 3. Selected measures eligible for savings under the Energy Efficiency Obligations Schemes
in Four Countries 30
Table 4. Countries/States/Provinces Enacting Feed-in Policies 35
List of Figures
Figure 1. CO2 Emissions from buildings - IPCC High Growth Scenario 9
Figure 2. Estimated Economic Mitigation Potential by Sector and Region Using Technologies
and Practices Expected to be Available In 2030 10
Figure 3. Life Cycle Phases of Buildings 11
Figure 4. Small Savings from Large Numbers of End-Use Units Constitute the Long-Tail Distribution
of Building Sector Projects 14
Figure 5. Different Types of Residential Housing in South Africa 18
Figure 6. Outcome of the French Grenelle de l’Environnement 20
Figure 7. Energy Certification of New/existing Buildings 25
Figure 8. A Passive Apartment Building in Finland 36
Figure 9. Commonly Identified Energy Efficiency Technology Needs in the Building and
Residential Subsectors 39
List of Boxes
Box 1. Tax Incentives under the U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005 26
Box 2. Leading by Example: Government Initiatives to Promote Energy Efficiency in Public Buildings 28
Box 3. Cap-and-Trade Scheme for Non-residential Buildings 31
5
8 Key Messages for Decision-makers
1
8 key messages for decision-makers
Buildings are responsible for more the majority of buildings which will be standing in
than 40 percent of global energy use 2050 have already been built, so policies should
and one third of global greenhouse encourage building owners to retrofit their buildings
gas emissions, both in developed and in such a way as to optimize emission reductions.
developing countries. In developing countries, particularly those
The main source of greenhouse gas emissions from undergoing rapid urbanization, policies should
buildings is energy consumption, but buildings are encourage property developers and construction
also major emitters of other non-CO2 greenhouse companies to incorporate energy and greenhouse
emissions such as halocarbons. While historically gas emission considerations into the feasibility and
4
the majority of emissions emanated from developed design stages of buildings.
countries, it is expected that in the near future the
level of emissions from buildings in rapidly industri- Most developed countries and many
alizing countries will surpass emission levels from
2
developing countries have already
buildings in developed countries. taken steps towards reducing
greenhouse gas emissions from the
The Building Sector has the largest Building Sector, but these steps
potential for delivering long-term, have had a limited impact on actual
significant and cost-effective emission levels.
greenhouse gas emissions. This is due to a number of barriers which reflect
Furthermore, this potential is relatively the nature of the sector, such as the fact that there
independent of the cost per ton of CO2 eqv. are many small reduction opportunities spread
achieved. With proven and commercially available across millions of buildings; different stakeholders
technologies, the energy consumption in both new are involved at the various stages in a building’s
and existing buildings can be cut by an estimated life; these stakeholders have different economic
30 to 80 percent with potential net profit during the interests in terms of valuing investments in energy
building life-span. This potential for greenhouse efficiency measures; energy efficiency investments
gas emission reductions from buildings is common are perceived to be costly and risky; and there is
to developed and developing countries, as well as still a lack of practical knowledge about how to
3 5
countries with economies in transition. implement energy efficiency measures.
6
and civil society organizations, research and Convention on Climate Change provides the best
educational institutes, and most importantly, the framework for facilitating this cooperation, but there
public, to achieve the common goal of reducing
6
is an urgent need to make the flexible financing
greenhouse gas emissions from buildings. mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol more effective
in addressing greenhouse gas emissions from the
With these “building blocks” in place, Building Sector. In this regard, the current structure
governments are well placed to select of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) must
and design appropriate policies to be reformed or additional mechanisms created
reduce emissions from new and to support developing countries’ efforts to reduce
existing buildings. emissions from the Building Sector. Furthermore,
There are five main policy targets: increase energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emission
the energy efficiency of buildings; increase the reduction programs in the Building Sector should
energy efficiency of appliances which use energy; be recognized as a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
encourage energy generation and distribution Action (NAMA). At the same time, sufficient
companies to support emission reductions in the incentives to attract private sector financing must be
8
Building Sector; change attitudes and behaviour put in place.
towards energy consumption; and promote the
substitution of fossil fuels with renewable sources Reducing emissions from buildings
of energy. Governments have a variety of policy will bring multiple benefits to both the
instruments, including regulatory, fiscal, economic, economy and to society.
informational and capacity building measures, The construction, renovation, and
to choose from. An assessment by UNEP’s maintenance of buildings contribute 10 to
Sustainable Building and Climate Initiative found 40 percent of countries’ Gross Domestic Product
that there are many policy instruments which are (GDP), and represent on a global average 10 percent
not only effective in achieving emission reductions, of country-level employment. If carefully planned,
but can also result in net savings when the energy
7
greenhouse gas mitigation strategies for buildings
saved is factored into the assessment. can stimulate the growth of new businesses and
jobs, as well as contribute to other, equally pressing,
At no other time has the case for social development goals, such as better housing
international cooperation to address and access to clean energy and water. Decision-
climate change been more pressing makers should seize the opportunity offered by the
than now. climate change crisis to build the foundation for
The United Nations Framework sustainable development today and for the future.
7
Chapter 1
The Contribution of
Buildings to Climate Change
The Contribution of Buildings Under the IPCC’s high growth scenario, this figure
could almost double by 2030 to reach 15.6 billion
to Climate Change
metric tons CO2 eqv. (Figure 1) (Levine et al, 2007).
As Figure 1 shows, historically the majority of
Today, buildings are responsible for more than 40
emissions were generated from North America,
percent of global energy used, and as much as one Western Europe, and the Eastern Europe, Caucasus
third of global greenhouse gas emissions, both in and Central Asia (EECCA) regions, but based on
developed and developing countries. In absolute the high growth scenario given in Figure 1, the total
terms, the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC emissions from developing countries will surpass
estimated building-related GHG emissions to be these regions by 2030.
around 8.6 million metric tons CO2 eqv in 2004
(Levine et al, 2007). What is particularly worrying The good news is that the Building Sector has
is the rate of growth of emissions: between 1971 the largest potential for significantly reducing
and 2004, carbon dioxide emissions, including greenhouse gas emissions compared to other
through the use of electricity in buildings, is major emitting sectors. This potential is relatively
estimated to have grown at a rate of 2.5% per independent of the cost per ton of CO2 equ.
achieved (IPCC, 2007). Figure 2, from the IPCC’s
year for commercial buildings and at 1.7% per
Fourth Assessment Report, shows that the potential
year for residential buildings (Levine et al, 2007).
for greenhouse gas reductions from buildings
Furthermore, the Buildings and Construction
is common to both developed and developing
Sector is also responsible for significant non-CO2
countries, as well as countries with economies in
GHG emissions such as halocarbons, CFCs, and transition. What this means is that with proven and
HCFCs (covered under the Montreal Protocol), commercially available technologies, the energy
and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), due to their consumption in both new and existing buildings
applications for cooling, refrigeration, and in the can be cut by an estimated 30 to 80 percent with
case of halocarbons, insulation materials. potential net profit during the building life-span.
Figure 1. CO2 emissions from buildings (including through the use of electricity) – IPCC High Growth Scenario.
Note: Dark red: historic emissions. Light red: projections 2001 – 2030. 2000 – 2010 data adjusted to actual 2000 carbon
dioxide emissions. EECCA= Countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Source: Levine et al, 2007.
9
The Contribution of Buildings to Climate Change
Figure 2. Estimated economic mitigation potential by sector and region using technologies and practices
expected to be available in 2030. The potentials do not include non-technical options such as lifestyle changes.
Source: IPCC, 2007a.
10
Chapter 1
affect every aspect of a building’s energy use over electricity was available. More significantly, the
its lifetime. Most countries, and even states within generation of electricity itself is a major source of
countries, have multiple climate zones. GHG emissions, unless it comes from renewable
sources such as hydroelectric power plants and
More significantly, however, the level of greenhouse solar energy, or from nuclear energy. At the global
gas emissions from buildings is closely correlated level, it has been estimated that direct combustion
with the level of demand, supply and source of of energy from fossil fuels in buildings released
energy. In many low-income countries, especially approximately 3 GtCO2 in 2004, compared with 8.6
in rural areas, a large proportion of operational GtCO2 per year from all energy end users (Levine
energy is derived from burning wood and other et al, 2007). Similarly, the Carbon Monitoring For
biomass, such as dung and crop residues. The Action (CARMA) database of carbon emissions of
IEA estimates that as many as 2.4 billion people more than 50,000 power plants and 4,000 power
use biomass for cooking and heating, and that companies in every country suggests that power
this number is likely to increase in the future (IEA, generation using fossil fuels accounts for 40% of all
2002). In many countries, the technologies used carbon emissions in the United States and about
to burn the biomass, such as cooking stoves, are one-quarter of global emissions (CARMA web site).
often very inefficient. In China, for example, rural
energy use per capita was three times greater In most countries the residential sector accounts for
than urban energy use due to the low efficiency the major share of total primary energy consumption.
of biomass combustion for cooking and space Nevertheless, the energy consumption in non-resi-
heating (Tonooka, Y. et al. 2003). dential buildings such as offices, public buildings and
hospitals is also significant and growing. China for
As countries develop, and traditional fuels are example is expected to add the equivalent of twice
complemented by and replaced by electricity and the current U.S. stock of office buildings by 2020
gas, the potential for greenhouse gas emissions (LBL, 2007). In terms of international averages, most
increases profoundly for two main reasons. Access residential energy in developed countries is consumed
to electricity can stimulate demand for electrical for space heating (60%, although not as important
appliances, thereby increasing demand for energy in some developed countries with a warm climate,
over and beyond the level it had been before but in this case energy may be used for cooling
Feasibility: Demolition,
Pre-design and Building Reuse and
Construction Operation reuse and Landfill
development design refurbishment
planning recycling
11
The Contribution of Buildings to Climate Change
Hidden costs/ Cost or risks Costs and risks due to All countries Appliance standards, Carbon
benefits (real or per- potential incompatibilities, building codes (to Trust 2005,
ceived) that are performance risks, transac- overcome high trans- Levine et al
not captured tion costs etc. action costs), EPC/ 2007
directly in fi- Poor power quality, partic- ESCOs, public leader-
nancial flows ularly in some developing ship programs
countries
Market fail- Market struc- Limitations of the typical All countries Fiscal instruments Carbon
ures tures and building design process and incentives Trust 2005,
constraints Fragmented market struc- Product standards Levine et al
that prevent ture Regulatory-normative 2007
a consistent Landlord/tenant split and Regulatory-informa-
trade-off be- misplaced incentives tive
tween specific Administrative and regula- Economic instru-
EE investment tory barriers (e.g. in the ments
and energy incorporation of distributed Technology transfer,
saving benefits generation technologies) mechanisms
Imperfect information
Unavailability of energy ef-
ficiency equipment locally
12
Chapter 1
Table 1. Continued
Political and Structural Process of drafting local Most de- Enhance implementa- Yao et al.
structural characteristics legislation is slow veloping tion of standards 2005
barriers* of political, Gaps between regions at (and some Deringer et
economic, different economic level developed) Incentive policy al 2004
energy system Insufficient enforcement of countries encouraging EE build-
which make ef- standards ing design, Enhance
ficiency invest- Lack of detailed guidelines, international coopera-
ment difficult tools and experts tion and technology
Lack of incentives for EE transfer, Public lead-
investments ership programs
Lack of governance leader-
ship/ interest
Lack of equipment testing/
certification
Inadequate energy service
levels
13
The Contribution of Buildings to Climate Change
medium Unit
Unit number
number
to large
large number of small end-use units (buildings) owned
units
by many owners
(buildings)
purposes) with this application followed in order by diverse energy needs. Unlike energy production and
water heating (18%) and domestic appliances (6% other sectors which have large emission reduction
for refrigeration and cooking, 3% for lighting) with potentials at a small number of intervention points,
other uses accounting for 13% (UNEP, 2007). In the buildings sector has many small reduction
hotter climates, much less or no energy is used for opportunities spread across millions of buildings.
space heating but a significant proportion of energy For this reason, some experts have referred to
may be used for cooling purposes. However, the energy efficiency projects in buildings as typical
relative share of different energy applications varies “long tail” projects – it is relatively easy to achieve
from country to country, as well as from household to large emission reductions per unit at the top end of
household. This is partly explained by differences in the range of buildings (going from large to small),
income levels and behavior of building occupants. but becomes increasingly difficult as the size of the
buildings gets smaller (Figure 4). Given the large
Barriers to realizing number of buildings, the aggregate savings from
emission reduction the “long tail” are likely to exceed the savings from
potentials the top end.
Most countries have introduced policies to reduce Fragmentation of the building sector
greenhouse gas emissions from buildings through Buildings have a long life cycle with many different
measures to improve energy efficiency. However, stakeholders involved in different phases of
these policies have not resulted in an actual a building’s life, such as property developers
reduction in emissions. Many studies have been and financiers, architects, engineers, building
conducted to try to understand why the energy managers, occupants and owners. The decisions
savings potential in buildings is so difficult to taken by these various stakeholders will all have
achieve (see Table 1, p. 12-13; also UNEP, 2007a; an impact on the level of emissions of the building
Deringer et al, 2004; Westling et al, 2003; Vine, over its lifetime, but there are very few opportunities
2005; IPCC, 2007, WBCSD, 2007 and 2009). or incentives for coordination between them. For
Some of the underlying causes for the slow uptake example, as noted in Figure 4 above, decisions
of energy efficiency measures in the sector are taken during the Feasibility Assessment and
discussed below. Design phases in the early stages of a building’s life
will have a major impact on the level of emissions
A large number of small reduction during the Operational Phase, but most feasibility
opportunities assessments do not account for the life-time
There are hundreds of millions of individual buildings running costs of the building because these are not
in the world, each one presenting multiple and paid for by the property developer.
14
Chapter 1
Perceived “first cost” barrier and split The Need for a Long-Term
economic interests Perspective
Perhaps the largest barrier to energy efficiency
improvements in buildings is the “first cost” barrier of Due to their long life cycle, it is essential that
energy efficiency measures in existing buildings due measures to reduce emissions for both new and
to the limited time which an occupant of a building existing buildings are designed to have the maximum
has to recover the cost. In rented properties, many impact and are costed over the expected lifetime
tenants are unwilling to make investments in energy of the buildings. For developed countries and
economies in transition, most of the buildings that
saving features because they do not expect to live
will be operating in 2050 have already been built,
in or use that property long enough to recoup their
and therefore policies to reduce emissions from
investment through savings in their energy bills. In
the Building Sector should focus on adapting and
addition, energy costs are often a comparatively
retrofitting existing buildings to the optimal energy
small part of the overall running costs of a building.
efficiency standard. Initiatives which encourage
The economic incentives derived from lower energy retrofits at sub-optimal level may “lock in” much
costs are therefore too weak to induce owners and of the mitigation potential of buildings, thereby
tenants to invest in energy efficiency measures. failing to achieve the maximum level of emission
reductions. In order to encourage building owners
Lack of awareness about low cost to maximize the emission reduction potential from
energy efficiency measures retrofits, policy tools should be designed to support
The above barrier is compounded by the perception multiple actions, which, taken as a whole, achieve
amongst property developers and contractors that maximum efficiency performance. The ‘zero rate
energy efficiency measures add significantly to eco-loan’ introduced for homes in France, for
the overall costs of a building project, in particular example, was designed so that it can be used
through costly technological solutions. There is in conjunction with tax credits and for a range of
therefore a need for awareness raising activities retrofitting activities (see Box 2, p. 28).
across the spectrum of stakeholders about low
In developing countries, retrofitting existing buildings
cost energy efficiency measures that have been
at the optimal level is also a priority. In this regard,
proven to be equally, if not more, effective than the
there is tremendous scope for using this opportunity
application of high cost technologies.
to update the heating and cooling technologies
used in buildings, as well as implementing low cost
Lack of indicators to measure energy but effective passive solutions to improve energy
performance in buildings efficiencies such as thermal mass and sunshades.
Most building occupants have little or no information Developing countries, particularly those undergoing
about the energy savings potentials of the buildings rapid construction growth, should set optimal energy
they live in and occupy. Furthermore, the lack of performance standards if they are to avoid the “lock
clear and verifiable indicators with which to measure in” effect described above. It should be noted that
and compare energy consumption makes it difficult global architectural trends, such as the use of glass
to gauge the savings derived from energy efficiency envelopes in high-rise office buildings, may not be
improvements. Energy performance requirements appropriate for their climatic conditions (particularly
and indicators are therefore one of the main in hot climates). More research on appropriate
“building blocks” for a successful greenhouse gas building materials, in terms of embodied energy,
durability, thermal mass, and cost, for developing
mitigation strategy for buildings.
countries, is required.
15
Chapter 2
“Building Blocks” for Developing
GHG Mitigation Strategies for
the Building Sector
“Building Blocks” for greenhouse gas emissions from both existing and
Developing GHG Mitigation new buildings.
Strategies for the Building
Sector Building Commissioning
Energy performance indicators are used in the
The experience of countries which implemented commissioning process of buildings, in other
energy efficiency measures following the two words, to assess whether a building’s systems
major energy crises of the 1970s show that current have been designed, installed and made ready to
barriers to energy efficiency in buildings can be perform in accordance with the design intent and
overcome. To do this, Decision-Makers must the building owner’s operational needs. Because
first have a number of essential “building blocks” of the lack of energy performance indicators,
in place. These include energy performance energy management tools and procedures have
requirements and indicators; appropriate data not been systematically established and applied
and information about their Building Sector, the to the design and commissioning of buildings,
capacity to analyze this data, and the ability to especially in developing countries, and knowledge
coordinate and facilitate policies which address and expertise remain at a low level.
GHG emissions from buildings.
Self Regulation and Fine-Tuning of
Energy Performance Energy Use
Requirements and Energy performance indicators allow building
Indicators
owners and building users to assess the costs and
benefits of energy efficiency investments during the
Energy performance indicators measure the
operational phase of the building. During this phase,
performance of buildings in terms of their
continuous monitoring and periodic adjustments to
energy use and efficiency. Energy performance
design features can lead to substantial savings. For
requirements are set using these indicators,
example, close monitoring of a sustainable building
according to area of space covered, for example
site in Oberline, Ohio in the USA led to controls
in heating space or lighting, and adjusted for
and equipment changes that reduced initial site
building type, location, usage, and so on. While
energy use by 37 percent (Torcellini et al., 2006).
some countries have energy performance
Experiences in developing countries show similar
requirements, in many countries there are no
results: one study found that fine-tuning during
agreed methodologies or indicators to compare
the energy efficiency in buildings against. As the first year of operation reduced total energy
energy performance requirements are an essential consumption in several sustainable buildings
component of any GHG mitigation strategy for in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia by 20 to 30 percent
the Building Sector, they should be established at (Kristensen, 2007).
the national, and, where appropriate, the regional
and municipal levels. Examples of how energy National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
performance requirements are used summarized Energy performance indicators are critical in
below. compiling reliable national inventories of energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emission from
Building Codes the national building stock. Their usage can also
Energy performance requirements can be used to expand the range of financing options open to
set performance targets in building codes. Building countries, especially under the Clean Development
codes have been found to be one of the most Mechanism of the UNFCCC, because they can be
effective and cost-effective policies in reducing used to compare emissions over time.
17
“Building Blocks” for Developing GHG Mitigation
Strategies for the Building Sector
Part of the difficulty in setting energy performance data on energy use and efficiency. Given the
requirements come from the great diversity in how diversity in types of buildings, this is a serious
buildings use energy. This is why it is important for challenge for many countries. In South Africa,
policy makers to have as much information about for example, residential housing has been divided
the size and characteristics of the Building Sector into four categories: dwelling house < 80 m2
as possible. (estimated to number 3.8 million, or 30% of the
residential building stock in 2006); dwelling-house
Data and information => 80 m2 (estimated at 3.6 million, or 29% of
about the size and building stock); flats and townhouses (1.0 million
characteristics of the or 8% of building stock), and other types, including
Building Sector backyard properties, informal and squatter units,
and traditional/rural housing (estimated 4.1
Most countries have fairly good data about million, or 33% of building stock) (BMI-BRSCU,
aggregate energy production and consumption at StatsSA 2008, as cited in Milford, 2008) (Figure
the national level, but not many have sector-level 5). Without disaggregated data, such as climate
18
Chapter 2
and temperature, size, age, and other character- requires appropriate training and understanding of
istics such as construction materials and potential what the policies are and what steps are needed
or actual use of natural ventilation, it is extremely if the object which is subject to the regulation falls
difficult to design and implement policies for short of the legal standard. The lack of enforcement
greenhouse gas emission reduction. The lack of has been identified as a major weakness of energy
such data has been cited as a major obstacle to efficiency policies in developing countries.
estimating the greenhouse gas emission reduction
potential in several studies (de Buen, 2008 for Technical knowledge and skills
Mexico, Milford, 2008 for South Africa). In order to propagate a new technology or
building technique, the building professionals
Capacity to Design involved must be able to actually apply them. In
and Implement Energy this regard, Baden et al (2006), list the following
Efficiency Measures training needs for the development of personnel
to certify a building’s performance: qualification
An important, but often overlooked, determinant of raters; development of code of standards for
of success in reducing greenhouse gases from the field and performance testing verification;
buildings lies in the capacity of governments and definition of quality assurance requirements; and
other stakeholders in the Building Sector to design the definition of insurance requirements.
and implement policies effectively. Policies to
address greenhouse gas emissions from buildings Today, many governments have dedicated
are usually multi-faceted and involve more than agencies and staff working for the promotion
one stakeholder. Capacity-building activities must of energy efficiency. According to a survey of
therefore involve the relevant parties to have the 70 countries conducted by the World Energy
desired effects. Different types of skills are needed Council and ADEME in 2008, about two thirds
as indicated below. of the countries surveyed have a national energy
efficiency agency and over 90 percent have a
Data collection, analysis and use Ministry department dedicated to energy efficiency
As noted above, energy performance indicators (WEC, 2008). The European Union has even
are a critical ingredient in a wide variety of policy created an “Intelligent Energy Europe” agency
measures. However, without the capacity to to manage energy efficiency projects including
collect, analyse and use data pertaining to energy for buildings, as well as help establish local and
consumption in buildings, government officials regional energy efficiency agencies (European
and building professionals alike will not be able Commission Intelligent Energy Europe web site).
to use them. Building this capacity requires both These agencies often play a coordinating role to
training as well as the availability of equipment facilitate consultative processes and communica-
to measure energy use. The availability of better tions between stakeholders, including between
data could also facilitate the application of energy different branches of the government itself.
use simulation software for buildings, which are
proving to be effective tools for building designers Consultative Frameworks
and engineers. for Policy Making and
Communication
Enforcement of regulatory policies
Regulatory policies, such as Building Codes or The Building Sector is so vast, and is dispersed over
Energy Efficiency Standards for appliances, will such a wide area that governments will not be able
only make an impact on reducing greenhouse to bring about greenhouse gas emission reductions
gas emissions if they are enforced. Enforcement from buildings without the active involvement of
19
“Building Blocks” for Developing GHG Mitigation
Strategies for the Building Sector
Local meetings
involving citizens in
the debate
6 Workgroups & The Environment
2 Intergroups Round Table
Themed
discussion forums
on the Internet
15 July to 28 September to
24/25 October
25 September 22 October
20
Chapter 2
21
Chapter 3
Policy Options for Reducing
Emissions from Buildings
Policy Options for Reducing The following sections outline the main policy
Emissions from Buildings instruments available to governments, grouped by
target. In almost all cases, these targets are best
In their Assessment of Policy Instruments for achieved through a combination of policies, or
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from “policy packages”, rather than one or two policies
Buildings (UNEP, 2007a), the authors classify implemented alone. Furthermore, there may be
policies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions overlap between the policy targets, for example,
from buildings into four categories, regulatory and promoting investment in energy efficiency measures
control instruments; economic and market-based (Target 1) while changing consumer behavior
instruments; fiscal instruments and incentives; (Target 4). Decision-makers can “mix-and-match”
and support, information and voluntary actions,
their policies to find the optimum solutions to their
and assess each for its cost effectiveness and
particular carbon energy scenarios.
its effectiveness in actually reducing greenhouse
gas emissions (Table 2 - next page). Many policy
Target 1: Improve the
instruments were not only found to be effective
in achieving emission reductions, but they also
Energy Efficiency of New &
resulted in net savings, in some cases of up US$ Existing Buildings
200 per ton of CO2 eqv avoided, if the benefits of
saved energy and the associated avoided expenses Broadly speaking, the energy efficiency of a building
are factored into the cost-benefit assessment. As is determined by the rate at which energy is lost
can be seen from Table 2, regulatory and control through the physical structure of the building (the
instruments were found to be effective in terms of building envelope), and the rate at which energy
emission reductions as well as cost. Economic is used to meet the energy needs and physical
and market-based instruments also scored fairly comfort of the occupants. These two factors are
well on both counts, as did one fiscal instrument often closely interrelated, because the physical
(tax exemptions and reductions). structure and design of a building, interacting with
the local climate, strongly influence the choice of
To select the most appropriate policies for the “carbon
energy system and the associated efficiency of
emissions” scenario of the Building Sector of their
that system. When considering policies to improve
countries, governments should consider what policy
the energy efficiency of buildings, therefore, it is
objective they wish to target. Broadly speaking, the
five major policy objectives, or targets, for reducing important to keep both factors in mind.
greenhouse gas emissions from buildings are:
Building Codes
Target 1: Increase the energy efficiency of new Almost all developed countries have Building
& existing buildings (both the physical Codes which include energy efficiency standards,
envelope, and the operational aspects while many developing countries are now passing
such as energy systems for heating, legislation for such codes. In most cases, these
ventilation and other appliances); codes tend to regulate new buildings, but recently
Target 2: Increase the energy efficiency of many developed country governments have
appliances (white goods, entertainment, amended their codes to cover renovations and re-
personal computers and telecommuni- furbishments of existing buildings. Most building
cation equipment); codes are performance based: that is, they set a
Target 3: Encourage energy and distribution maximum limit for level of heat transfer through the
companies to support emission building envelope and the level of heating/cooling
reductions in the Building Sector; demand, as well as require building equipment such
Target 4: Change attitudes and behavior; as heating and air conditioning systems, ventilation,
Target 5: Substitute fossil fuels with renewable water heaters and even pumps and elevators to
energies. meet certain energy performance standards.
23
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
Table 2. Summary Table of Policies to Reduce GHG Emissions in the Building Sector
(UNEP, 2007a)
Emission Cost-
Special conditions for success, major strengths and
Policy instruments Reduction effective-
limitations, co-benefits
Effectiveness ness
Regulatory and control instruments
Building codes High Medium Only effective if enforced and periodically updated
Continuous improvements necessary: new energy efficiency
Energy efficiency obligations and quotas High High
measures, short term incentives to transform markets
High, but Most effective if combined with other measures such as
Mandatory audit requirement Medium
variable financial incentives
Mandatory programs more effective than voluntary ones.
Labelling and certification programs Medium/High High Effectiveness can be boosted by combination with other
instrument and regular updates
Demand-side management programs Tend to be more cost-effective for the commercial sector than
High High
(DSM) for the residential sector.
Kyoto Protocol flexible mechanisms Low Low So far limited number of CDM &JI projects in buildings
Detailed billing and disclosure programs Success conditions: combination with other measures and
Medium Medium
periodic evaluation
24
Chapter 3
Building Codes can also be used in conjunction i.e. increasing their energy efficiency requirements.
with standards on equipment or materials. In its revision of the 2002 Energy Performance of
Buildings Directive (2002/91/EC), for example, the EU
Building Codes are almost always more successful harmonized the standards for energy performance
when mandatory rather than voluntary. When they and certification in buildings and now requires
are mandatory, they help overcome the perception a mandatory revision of these standards to be
that energy efficiency investments are an option. Any conducted every five years (European Commission,
additional investment costs carried forward from the 2008). Some governments combine codes with
investment stage to the user stage are often off-set other information based instruments or introduce
by lower construction or operating costs. additional incentives, such as tax rebates or other
concessions. The Energy Performance of Buildings
The US and EU member states have stepped Directive in the EU (2002), for example, required the
up efforts in using building codes to reduce their obligatory energy certification of new and existing
energy emissions by strengthening existing codes, buildings as well as prominent display of this
certification and other relevant information in public
Figure 7. Energy Certification of New/existing Buildings buildings (Geissler et al. 2006; Figure 7). Building
UK Department for Communities and Local Government, 2008a.
certification can help overcome the “first cost” barrier
of energy efficiency measures by
integrating the operational costs
of each building into its market
value.
25
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
agencies. Training must be continuous and flexible, buildings as well as other major energy consuming
as building codes are likely to change over time as sectors, such as specific industrial and large
energy performance requirements are raised and commercial consumers. In the EU, these audits
building designs and technologies evolve. also stipulate that energy consuming equipment
such as heating boilers be properly maintained.
Building commissioning and mandatory While detailed energy audits are relatively costly
energy audits and require a high level of technical skill to conduct,
Building commissioning is the systematic testing they have a big advantage over other policies in
process conducted to ensure that a building’s that they provide practical data and reach a large
systems have been designed, installed and number of customers in a short time. In developing
made ready to perform in accordance with the countries in particular, more attention needs to
design intent and the building owner’s operational be given to raising the quality of auditors through
needs. In the same way that regular servicing training and providing practical and financial support
extends the lifespan of an automobile, the proper to the owners and occupiers of audited buildings to
commissioning of the energy systems in buildings implement the recommendations of the audit.
is crucial to the efficient operation of the building
later in its life cycle. According to case studies Including information on consumption (e.g. in
in the USA, proper building commissioning has annual kWh per building area or per occupant)
yielded impressive results, with energy savings of and emissions (e.g. in annual CO2e per building
up to 38% in cooling and/or 62% in heating, and area or per occupant) on utilities bills supports
an overall energy savings average higher than 30% mandatory and voluntary audits and provides the
(Levine et al, 2007). users of buildings with information about how to
reduce energy consumption and improve efficiency.
Mandatory energy audits are an extension of However, the users still need to act on this
Building codes and commissioning processes. In information. For this reason, such measures are
many European and other countries, governments most useful when combined with other strategies
have made energy audits mandatory for their public such as subsidies for the recommended energy
Box 1. Tax Incentives under the U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005
The U.S. Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT) offered businesses tax deductions for the costs of improving the energy
efficiency of commercial buildings. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 extended provisions in EPACT. The
following tax incentives are available under this act.
Source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tax_commercial.html
26
Chapter 3
efficiency measures, training and awareness raising Some governments prefer to use fiscal measures such
activities, or fiscal incentives to encourage the as tax incentives to encourage investment in energy
replacement of old equipment. Audited buildings savings and efficiency measures in buildings. For
may also be given awards or certification, thereby the residential sector, tax credits and tax deductions
increasing public recognition for the successful im- are most popular, while for the commercial sector
plementation of energy efficiency measures. tax concessions and accelerated depreciation are
used. Almost 40 percent of OECD countries offer
Capital Subsidies, Grants, Subsidized tax credits for energy efficiency measures: the U.S.
Loans and Rebates Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT), for example,
Many governments use financial incentives such offers businesses tax deductions to cover the cost
as capital subsidies, grants, subsidized loans of measures which save at least 50 percent of the
and rebates to encourage building owners and heating and cooling energy of a building that meets
occupants to invest in energy efficiency measures certain standards (Box 3). The WEC found that
and equipment. In particular, governments have fiscal incentives are considered better than subsidies
targeted space heating and cooling because of in that they cost less, but that they usually have a
the high degree of energy wastage through poor poor performance in an economy in recession or in
insulation and air leakage in existing buildings. In transition (WEC, 2008).
this regard, financial incentives to promote the
Energy Performance Contracting (EPC)
insulation and retrofitting of exterior walls, ceilings,
Energy performance contracting (EPC) means that
attics, lofts, floors, window frames, and band joints,
a contractor, typically an energy service company
as well as water heater storage tanks, boilers and
(ESCO), guarantees certain energy savings for a
water pipes, are most common.
location over a specified period; implements the
appropriate energy efficiency improvements; and
Subsidies are very common in the residential sector
is paid from the estimated energy cost reductions
in order to overcome the major barrier of high first
achieved through the energy savings (EFA 2002).
costs (ECS, 2002; WEC, 2008). They have been
EPC is becoming increasingly popular as a vehicle
used to finance better insulation such as roof
for implementing and financing energy efficiency
insulation in the U.K., more efficient equipment
projects in buildings because no public spending
such as refrigerators in Germany, and energy audits
or market intervention is needed to capture the
in France. The German and Slovenian subsidy cost-effective energy-efficiency potential and com-
schemes have been very effective, while in Brazil, petitiveness can be improved.
the PROCEL program provides grants to state and
local utilities, state agencies, private companies, However, a number of conditions must exist for an
universities and research institutes, which resulted effective ESCO industry to thrive, such as a mature
in cumulative savings of 5.3 TWh (169 ktCO2) per financial sector willing to lend for energy efficiency
year at a benefit-cost ratio of 12:1 from 1986 to projects; unsubsidised energy prices; and supportive
1998 (WEC, 2004). Limiting subsidies either to a legal, financial and business environments. To date,
short period of time to facilitate market introduction ESCOs have been shown to work effectively in
of new technologies or to a specific target group in Germany, the United States and Hungary, as well as
need enhances the effectiveness of the instrument in China and Brazil, but have been less successful
(Jeeninga and Uyterlinde, 2000). Some governments in some other countries such as India (Urge-Vorsatz
have also introduced soft loans schemes whereby et al, 2007, Koeppel, et al. 2007b). Most ESCO
loans for installing energy efficiency equipment are projects in developing countries have been financed
offered at a subsidized interest rate. by bilateral and multilateral donors.
27
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
Box 2. Leading by Example: Government Initiatives to Promote Energy Efficiency in Public Buildings
Governments are major consumers of energy, and therefore public sector buildings therefore offer a tremendous
opportunity for action on reducing greenhouse gases. On the one hand, they can significantly reduce energy
consumption and thereby save energy costs in the public sector, while on the other hand they can demonstrate
new technologies and provide an incentive to the private sector to follow (Harris et al 2004). They also
demonstrate to the taxpayers that government revenues are spent in a useful way.
Many governments have already introduced programs to reduce their own greenhouse gas emissions, such
as public leadership programs and green procurement policies (see Table below). Public leadership programs
are energy efficiency initiatives in public administrations. Public leadership programs are usually effective and
cost-efficient, and experience has shown that mandatory programs are more effective than voluntary ones. For
example, in the U.S., federal agencies were obliged by executive orders from the President to reduce their energy
use by 35% by 2010 compared to 1990 levels. leading to energy savings of 4.8 GWh annually (equivalent to 2.3
ktCO2) and to cost savings of $5.2 billion (U.S. DOE 2006). Meanwhile, France, Germany, Italy, the Republic of
Korea, Sweden and the U.K. have taken steps to “green” their public procurement policies.
28
Chapter 3
Target 2: Improve the the USA, and $190/tCO2 in the EU (IEA 2005,
Energy Efficiency of Schlomann et al. 2001, Gillingham et al. 2004,
Household and Business Energy Charter Secretariat 2002, WEC 2004,
Appliances Australian Greenhouse Office 2005, IEA 2003). In
this regard, appliance standards are most effective
when used in conjunction with appliance labeling
While space heating is the main end-use in buildings
program. However, one of the weaknesses of
in OECD countries, appliances are driving the
standards is that they do not provide incentives for
growth of energy consumption (IEA, 2006). The
innovation beyond the target and therefore need
most common types of end-uses are:
to be periodically updated. In countries which
• Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
import all electrical appliances, local testing and
systems; certification is very expensive as it requires capital
• Water heating; investment in testing equipment and training. It
• Lighting; would be beneficial to have an international system
• Personal computers, data centers and electronic for testing and certification, so that laboratory
appliances; tests conducted on products in one country can
• Cooking; also be used in another country.
• Refrigerators, freezers, washing machines,
dryers and dishwashers (“white goods”). Fiscal Incentives for the Purchase of
Energy Efficient Equipment
This section will focus on three policy instruments Though less common than appliance standards,
which aim to support the diffusion of energy efficient some governments have tried to encourage the
appliances on the market: appliance standards, dissemination of energy efficient appliances through
fiscal incentives for the purchase of energy efficient fiscal measures. The most popular is on reductions
equipment, and procurement policies. on import tax or VAT on efficient equipment. The
compact fluorescent lamp is the most common
Appliance Standards equipment for this type of measure outside of the
Most developed and many developing countries OECD, such as in Ghana, Morocco and Israel
have enacted appliance standards for energy-using (WEC, 2008).
products, such as lighting, heating and cooling
equipment, and personal computers. For example, Procurement Policies
the Top Runner Program in Japan, which required Cooperative procurement or technology
all new products to meet an efficiency level (of the procurement is another example of how consumers
most efficient product at the time the standard can flex their market power. It is a voluntary tool,
was set) by a specified date resulted in energy used in both the public sector and the private sector,
efficiency improvements of over 50% for some whereby customers who procure large quantities of
products (Geller et al 2006). Fluorescent lights energy-using appliances and equipment cooperate
and Light Emitting Diode (LED) technologies are 75 in order to influence the market for more efficient
percent more efficient than traditional incandescent products. Their requirements usually include
lights. There have also been major advances in the energy efficiency specifications which correspond
efficiency of air conditioners, ventilation systems, to, or even exceed, world best practice instead of
and other appliances.
only first-cost considerations (EFA 2002). The goal
is the commercial availability of new technologies
Appliance standards are cost effective because
for all buyers, not just the initial group, and ultimately
they reduce transaction costs for consumers
the sustained market acceptance of efficient new
and producers. This is confirmed in numerous
products. Public procurement regulations are also
countries: for 2020, savings for appliance
a very powerful tool for transforming appliance
standards evaluated by studies range between
markets towards greater efficiency (Box 2).
$65/tCO2 (i.e. a net benefit of USD 65/tCO2) in
29
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
Table 3. Selected measures eligible for savings under the Energy Efficiency Obligations schemes in four countries
(source: Adapted from WEC, 2008).
Measure Flanders France Italy U.K.
Cold appliances XX XX
Wet appliances X XX
Cogeneration XX
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) XX X XX XX
Condensing boilers XX X X XX
Fuel switching XX X
Glazing XX X X X
Heating controls X X XX
Heat pumps X X X X
Insulation: Attic XX X XX
Insulation: draught proofing X
Insulation: Hot water tank X
Insulation: Wall X XX
Low flow showerheads XX XX
PV panels X X
Solar water heating X X X X
30
Chapter 3
There is some variation between countries as to the An Efficient Building Scheme could operate as a
complementary measure to an Emissions Trading
type of measures which are eligible to be considered Scheme, but it could also operate independently. The
as part of the savings calculation, but the most City of Tokyo incorporated a similar trading scheme
common are lighting and heating measures such into its ‘Ordinance on Environmental Preservation’
in June 2008 (Ikuta, 2009). The Efficient Building
as co-generation, solar water heating and other Scheme was introduced to the Australian Senate in
renewable forms of heating. As can be seen from the Safe Climate (Energy Efficient Non-Residential
Table 3, the UK covers the most extensive range of Buildings Scheme) Bill in September 2009.
applications. In order to avoid “double counting” For more information:
of energy savings, only savings which are achieved • www.lendlease.com/sustainability/pdf/Efficient-
above the minimum energy performance standards BuildingScheme.pdf
• http://greensmps.org.au/webfm_send/233
are usually counted. Some countries target the
31
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
primary energy saved, while others consider also energy efficiency requirements, and systems for
the carbon content of the fuel saved. verification and enforcement (Ries et al., 2009).
32
Chapter 3
use (and save) energy. Governments have therefore use benchmark for that particular building type in
used energy and/or carbon taxes to raise the the country.
price of energy and increase the value associated
with every unit of energy consumed. Other ways The effectiveness of energy taxes has also been
of raising consumer awareness about energy contested, particularly as they do not specifically
efficiency are through advertising campaigns and address barriers to energy efficiency and potentially
the provision of detailed information about energy have serious social and political impacts (Crossley,
use (for example, with meters and in energy bills). et al, 2000). Similarly, governments have been
reluctant to remove energy subsidies, which, like
Another, more holistic approach, which internalizes taxes, would raise the price of energy. However,
the cost of energy efficiency measures into low, subsidized energy prices translate into longer
the value of the building is “green” mortgages. payback periods for energy efficiency investments,
Although their primary objective is not to change rendering them unprofitable in the medium term.
attitudes and behaviour, they are included in this Some observers attribute differences in government
section because in the longer run they may alter commitment to energy efficiency to their national
the way in which building owners perceive energy energy prices, with net energy importers according
efficiency improvements. a higher priority to energy efficiency policies than
net energy exporters. Governments must therefore
Energy/Carbon Taxes weigh the social costs of policies which affect
While the relation between energy demand and energy prices for the end-user, against the potential
energy prices is complex, the price of energy is a benefits which will be derived from them. To cushion
major influencing factor in energy user attitudes and the negative social effects, governments can use
behavior. Some countries have developed direct the funds saved or raised through these policies to
taxes on household fuels or carbon emissions create other energy saving mechanisms.
as a tool for discouraging the consumption of
energy. In most cases, the final consumer pays Information Programs to Change
(for example, households), but a tax may be levied Consumer Behavior
at any point in the supply chain (Crossley et al, Information programs to encourage consumers to
2000). Several European countries tax energy use less energy as well as adopt energy efficiency
use or energy-related CO2 emissions. In most measures are most effective when combined
cases, implicit taxes applied to fossil fuels are with other policy instruments. For example, the
inversely related to carbon content. effectiveness of appliance standards is enhanced
when accompanied by mandatory labeling
Taxes have a number of advantages: they directly programs, as shown in China, which has one of
affect the whole life-cycle of buildings and can the most comprehensive standards and labeling
reinforce the impact of other instruments such as programs in developing countries (Lin 2002).
standards and subsidies, or make energy efficiency Mandatory and voluntary labelling programs are
investments more profitably. Energy or CO2 taxes used in many countries all over the world, including
are also a useful means to raise finances for other numerous developing countries. More than half of
energy efficiency programs, such as through the countries in Asia and 90% of the countries in
rebates for energy efficient programs, loans or South America have labeling programs.
special assistance for low-income households
to increase their energy efficiency. For example, The US Energy Star Program is an example of a
countries can use such taxes to create an energy successful voluntary labeling program, with
efficiency investment fund which provides the expected cumulative savings of 833 Mt CO2
funding for increased initial investments for energy equivalent by 2010 (Gillingham et al 2004). In
efficiency in buildings, meeting the minimum energy general, mandatory labeling is more effective than
33
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
voluntary labeling because it avoids the problem of ness to both lenders and borrowers depends in
having inefficient appliances which are not labeled some part to the value of savings and therefore the
on the market (thus undermining more efficient, price of energy. However, they are a good example
but sometimes more expensive, products) (UNEP, of how the financial sector can accommodate the
2007a). risk of the capitalization of energy savings if there
is a credible verification system in place. One of
Detailed billing and disclosure programs have the prerequisites for the introduction of “green
also been found to encourage energy users to adjust mortgages” is therefore the existence of nationally
their consumption downwards. Studies have found recognized energy performance standards.
that displaying energy use on appliances is more
effective than providing energy consumption data Target 5: Substituting
on bills. This is one reason why in some countries, Fossil Fuels with
governments are encouraging the private sector to Renewable Energies in
install appliance energy meters in new buildings. Buildings
Finally, public information campaigns are also While renewable energy sources still generate less
common in many countries, including programs than 20% of the world’s electricity, the capacity
which provide “energy tips” and counseling, continues to grow steadily and more and more
energy consumption feedback and assessments, countries are developing renewable energy
elementary school programs, and mass media installations. In 2008 the supply of renewable
motivational campaigns. They are often more energies grew all around the world, led by growth
effective for the residential than the commercial in the U.S., China, Germany, Spain and India. After
sector. For example, in Brazil the cost-effectiveness
large hydropower, the main sources of renewable
of information programs exceeded those of most
electric power are wind power, small hydropower,
other policy instruments, with negative costs of
and biomass power.
$66/tCO2 (Dias et al. 2004). Information programs
are especially important in developing countries,
If the aim of the Building Sector is to become
where a lack of information has been identified as
carbon neutral in the medium to long run, then
a major barrier for energy efficiency and renewable
renewable energies will have to play a much
energy investments (Evander et al. 2004).
bigger role in meeting energy needs in buildings.
Green Mortgages This can be achieved through two avenues: first,
Energy Efficient Mortgages (EEMs) or Energy by substituting fossil fuels with renewable energy
Improvement Mortgages (EIMs), often referred to sources at the point of electricity generation; and
as “green mortgages”, are loans which provide the second, through the use of renewable energy
borrower a money-saving discount, lower interest technologies at the point of consumption, i.e.
rates or a bigger loan than normally permitted as a off-grid applications of renewable energy. Clearly,
reward for making energy-efficient improvements or both approaches must be followed simultaneously.
for buying a home that meets particular energy-effi- Recent trends suggest that demand for appliances
ciency standards. The economic rationale behind which use renewable energies will continue to grow
green mortgages is that energy-efficient homes rapidly, particularly when supported by favorable
will save money for the home-owner, resulting in government policies.
a higher income which qualifies the beneficiary to
borrow more. Policies to Increase the Share of
Renewables in Energy Markets
It is too early to say whether green mortgages will Many countries are trying to speed up the diffusion
become the norm in the future, as their attractive- of renewable energy provision through direct
34
Chapter 3
regulation: by early 2009, at least 73 countries had Table 4 lists the countries and states which have
policy targets for renewable energy (REN, 2009). implemented feed-in tariffs over the past ten years.
Of the major energy producers and consumers Recently, municipal and local governments have
in the world, China’s 2005 Law on renewable been exploring ways to introduce feed-in tariffs at
energy stipulates that 10 percent of total power the local level.
consumption should come from renewable
sources by 2020, while the EU has set an even Renewable energy markets have also been
more ambitious target of 20% by 2020 (European boosted by the enactment of Renewable
Commission, 2009). While the US and Canada Portfolio Standards (RPS) in several major energy
do not have national targets, 46 federal states and consuming countries, notably the United States.
provinces currently have their own policy targets on These consist of electricity generation requirements,
renewable energy (REN, 2009). imposed on electric utilities by state legislatures, to
provide either a specific amount of electric capacity
Regulatory targets are usually complemented or a percentage of total capacity from renewable
by price-based instruments such as feed-in sources. Utilities can also purchase renewable
tariffs. Governments require their energy utilities energy credits from external sources to fulfill these
or suppliers to purchase electricity from private obligations. As of early 2009, 9 countries had
suppliers at a rate set by the government, usually enacted national RPS policies, while 29 U.S. states,
higher than that paid for electricity generated from 3 Canadian provinces, 5 Indian states and Wallonia
conventional sources. 2008 saw a flurry of policies and Flanders in Belgium had introduced RPS at
and legislation relating to feed-in tariffs, bringing the the state/provincial level (REN, 2009). Although
total number of countries with feed-in tariffs at 45 the transaction costs of these schemes are initially
and states/provinces/territories at 18 in early 2009. high, and advanced institutional structures are
Year Country/state
Prior to 1999 US, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, India, Spain, Greece, Sri Lanka, Sweden
2003 Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Republic of Korea, Slovak Republic, Maharashtra (India)
2004 Israel, Nicaragua, Prince Edward Island (Canada), Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (India)
2005 Karnataka, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh (India); China, Turkey, Ecuador, Ireland
2008 Queensland (Australia); California (U.S.A.); Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and West
Bengal (India); Kenya, the Philippines, Poland, Ukraine.
Note: Several feed-in policies shown here have been discontinued, while others have been revised or reformulated in years
subsequent to the initial year shown. India’s national feed-in tariff from 1993 was substantially discontinued but new national
feed-in tariffs were enacted in 2008. Source: REN 2009.
35
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
36
Chapter 3
of their water and space heating requirements with Towards Zero-Carbon Buildings
renewables, while existing buildings have two years As renewable technologies become more affordable
to meet a 10 percent target. Meanwhile at the and flexible, interest is growing in their applications
federal level, Germany has enacted a new minimum in both new and existing buildings. “Green building”
requirement for both hot water and space heating or “sustainable building” designs combine design
supply from renewables in new buildings from the and technology, usually renewable energy systems,
start of 2009, while Norway requires renewable hot to meet the needs of the occupants with very low
water heating in public buildings greater than 500 or even zero carbon emissions. For example,
m2 (REN 2009). passive houses are houses which maintain a
comfortable interior climate without active heating
However, by far the most common approach and cooling systems (Figure 8). Their additional
to encourage the uptake of renewable energy energy requirements may be completely covered
appliances at the building level has been through using renewable energy sources.
the use of subsidies, grants, and fiscal incentives.
For example, Japan has increased national solar PV Meanwhile, zero-energy buildings are buildings
subsidies for schools, hospitals and railway stations where energy provided by on-site renewable
from 33 to 50 percent, in addition to providing energy sources is equal to the energy used by the
subsidies for households. Ireland, Germany, building. In addition, energy can be stored on site, in
and Luxembourg provide subsidies or grants to batteries or thermal storage. Zero energy buildings
install solar water (and sometimes space) heaters are usually connected to the main electricity grid,
in residential, public and commercial buildings. in order to cope with possible fluctuations in
Eskom, the South African utility company, has also demand, especially as some buildings will produce
recently started a solar hot water subsidy program more energy in the summer and use more in the
that provides $200 – 350 per household. winter. Several exciting model projects have been
built in the last few years, including the WWF’s
In developing countries, particularly those with zero-energy housing project in the Netherlands and
relatively low electrification rates, there has been the Malaysia Energy Centre (Pusat Tenaga Malaysia)
tremendous progress in disseminating renewable headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. But perhaps the
energy appliances, sometimes in conjunction with most interesting projects taking place today are
rural electrification programs. A major Dutch/German energy-plus buildings – buildings that produce
project called “Energising Development”, initiated in more energy than they consume over a year. The
2004, exceeded its target of providing 5 million people extra energy is usually electricity, produced with
with full access to modern energy through improved solar cells, solar heating and cooling, insulation as
cookstoves and electricity access by 2008. Under a well as careful site selection and orientation.
World Bank energy access project in Ethiopia, nearly
1 million improved efficiency cooking stoves were While in most countries, “green buildings” are still
sold. As part of India’s Remote Village Electrification in the demonstration phase, they are expected to
Program, more than 435,000 home lighting systems, become the norm in the near future. In Germany,
700,000 solar lanterns and 7,000 solar-power water for example, passive building technologies are
pumps have been established. Several other donor- spreading rapidly, while in France, the Grenelle
financed projects are underway: notably two new de l’Environnement in France recommended that
World Bank projects to install 1.3 million solar home all new housing be passive or energy-positive by
systems in Bangladesh, which were among the first 2020 (UNEP, 2008b).
to use off-grid PV carbon finance (REN, 2009).
37
Policy Options for Reduction Emissions from Buildings
Chapter 4
International Cooperation for
Emission Reductions from
Buildings
Chapter 3
Figure 9. Commonly identified energy efficiency technology needs in the building and residential subsectors.
Source: SBSTA, 2006
39
International Cooperation for Emission Reductions
from Buildings
There is an urgent need to reconsider the various ternationally measurable, reportable and
mechanisms which have existed under the Kyoto verifiable. It should be noted that this approach
Protocol and to find ways of adapting them to the encourages a whole-building approach to
particular characteristics of the Building Sector. emission reduction instead of promoting
In particular, ways to overcome the barriers to specific technologies, which also opens the
accessing the flexible financing mechanisms door for innovative approaches to be applied
created under the Kyoto Protocol, such as the and recognized.
Clean Development Mechanism, must be found.
The following sections outline the major points to 4. The financing need for energy efficiency
be considered under the post-Kyoto agreement. improvements in buildings can to a large
extent be offset by reduced energy costs
Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions during the life time of buildings. Financial
(NAMA) mechanisms for redirecting funds freed up
The establishment of Nationally Appropriate through reduced energy consumption, to
Mitigation Actions, or NAMA, under the Bali energy efficiency investments in buildings can
Action Plan is a significant step towards this end be developed as presented above. In addition,
because greenhouse gas emission reduction the current financial crisis offers a unique
in buildings offers an obvious opportunity for opportunity to guide the stimulus financing
developed and developing countries to cooperate that in any case to a large part is destined for
in achieving common but differentiated action to infrastructure investments, towards energy
realize significant energy efficiency improvements. efficiency investments in buildings. This would
The Building Sector is an area that is particularly also support a wider shift towards a low carbon
appropriate to develop NAMA within, for the society where sustainable consumption and
following reasons: production patterns are better valued.
1. The potential for large emission reductions 5. A targeted energy efficiency in buildings
in buildings exists in all countries and is effort under NAMA would not only reduce
therefore relevant for all countries. greenhouse gas emissions but would also
contribute towards other national priorities
2. The level of implementation of energy efficiency including employment generation and
measures in buildings is at different stages upgrading of skills in the existing workforce,
in different countries. The opportunity for provision of more sustainable, affordable and
country-to-country technology sharing healthy buildings, and improved energy security
agreements and international capacity through reduced overall energy demand.
building support is obvious. International technology transfer agreements
and support to national capacity building
3. Emission reduction from buildings can be would thereby provide an additional incentive
relatively easy monitored, through energy for developing countries to undertake NAMA
consumption in individual buildings or groups in this area.
of buildings, converted to greenhouse gas
emissions through emission factors. If the UNEP SBCI is therefore proposing that emission
metrics used for energy efficiency and reduction in buildings is recognized by the parties
emission reduction in buildings can to the convention as an appropriate area for NAMA
be internationally agreed, the actions and that the development of frameworks required
undertaken by countries will also be in- to monitor, report and verify such actions are
40
Chapter 4
mandated in support thereof in the Copenhagen modern energy when none existed before (for
Agreement. example, amongst low income groups), the
provision of energy efficient housing would
Reforming the Clean Development increase absolute levels of energy consumption,
Mechanism thereby violating the additionality requirement.
The Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change established three 2. CDM projects targeting building sector
flexible mechanisms by which Annex I countries energy efficiency generate insufficient
are able to meet their national commitments to economic revenue in terms of Certified
reducing greenhouse gas emissions through Emissions Reduction credits to justify the
measures taken in non-Annex I countries. One of rather high implementation and monitoring
these is the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), costs. Therefore, given the choice between
which awards Certified Emissions Reduction a building project and another more short
credits to developed countries investing in projects term profitable one, countries tend not to
that reduce emissions in developing countries if plan building sector efficiency projects.
additionality requirements are fulfilled. The CDM is
regarded as one of the most important internation- 3. CDM requires a project to have real and
ally implemented mechanisms to finance emission measurable climate change benefits, which are
reduction projects and to support sustainable difficult to demonstrate in many cases because
development in developing countries. of the lack of baselines. In most countries,
there is a lack of established or enforced
With the CDM’s strong financial and technology standards on energy efficiency that could be
transfer incentives, the Building Sector would seem used when a reference case is not available,
well-positioned to become a primary target for CDM and without baselines, it is not possible for
project developers. Despite this potential, only 14 project developers to prove the emissions
projects out of more than 4,500 projects submitted impact.
for review (as of April 2009) address energy
efficiency in buildings. The “CDM requirements”, 4. Energy efficiency projects for buildings are typically
or conditions, which must be met to be considered small in scale and use a variety of measures to
for CDM funding, create a number of barriers to decrease overall energy consumption, such
their implementation for buildings, including the as improved energy systems, better design,
following: higher quality insulation and more efficient
user behaviour. CDM is not well-equipped for
1. CDM has an additionality requirement these kinds of projects because of its detailed
that calls for projects to demonstrate that monitoring requirements. CDM requires
they reduce emissions above and beyond evaluation of each technology and measure,
what would have been reduced without the which results in high administrative and economic
additional support from the CDM project. For costs to the implemented entity. In addition, some
this, the proposed project must be compared of the common energy efficiency improvement
to a reference case or baseline. Due to the measures for buildings cannot be verified with
fragmentation of the building market, it is existing CDM methodologies: for example, in
almost impossible to prove what building the case of buildings, changes in behaviour and
design would have been selected in the energy management are where many savings
absence of the CDM project. Furthermore, can be achieved.
where building projects provide access to
41
International Cooperation for Emission Reductions
from Buildings
1
for the post-Kyoto agreement.
Six actions for the post-kyoto agreement
2
to reduce energy consumption.
3
national authorities to account for local building types and climate zones.
4
efficient housing), given that a certain energy efficiency standard is met.
5
compliance. Such an agreement could be for a temporary period in order to
give the market tie to assimilate new technologies and new design knowledge.
6
to manage increased volumes of demand-side energy efficiency projects.
42
Chapter 4
43
Chapter 5
Conclusions & Priority Actions
for Creating a Carbon Neutral
Building Sector
Conclusions and Priority energy economy grew by over 9 percent between
Actions for Creating a 1997 and 2007, faster than overall jobs (Pew
Charitable Trust, 2009). Indeed, the term “green
Carbon Neutral Building
collar worker” is being used to describe people
Sector
employed in these sectors.
The Building Sector has tremendous potential
Partly in response to the global financial crisis,
for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and at
many national governments have increased the
relatively low cost. This report has shown that De-
availability of public finance for renewable and
cision-Makers have a vast array of policy options
“clean” technologies. The New Green Deal Group
available for each of the main policy targets,
of the U.K. went as far as calling on the government
namely improving the energy efficiency of buildings;
to devise a program which makes “every building
improving the energy efficiency of appliances;
a power station” through a crash programme of
improving the energy efficiency of energy suppliers
investment, as well as training a “carbon army” of
and distributors; changing attitudes and behavior
workers to fill high-and lower skilled jobs in the UK
towards energy use in buildings; and substituting
(nef, 2008).
fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy.
45
Conclusions and Priority Actions
1 4
Establish national regulations that make Support the inclusion of measures in
energy efficiency investments mandatory the new global climate-change treaty
in new buildings and in renovation of that encourage investments in both new
existing buildings. building and building renovation projects
2
that reduce or eliminate emissions.
5
Conduct inventories of energy
consumption, energy efficiency and Include in the technology transfer
emissions from the national building framework/measures, support to
stock to establish base-lines and set capacity building to enable and increase
performance goals to reduce greenhouse energy efficiency in existing and new
gas emissions in existing and new
6
buildings.
buildings in accordance with their
location, type and use.
3
Support the development and reform
of all flexible mechanisms to encourage
Establish an energy efficiency in investment in reducing the energy
buildings investment fund that can be demand and greenhouse gas emissions
used promote initial investments and
7
from building operations.
renovations for energy efficiency in
buildings, meeting the minimum energy
use benchmark for that particular Retrofit all publicly owned buildings for
building type in the country. Such a high-level energy efficiency and deep
fund can be financed through taxations GHG emission reducions. Ensure all
of energy use above the national new public buildings constructed achieve
average, thereby always providing the highest possible energy efficiency,
additional incentives to high energy the lowest possible GHG emissions and
users to reduce energy use. It can also do not ‘lock-in’ inefficiencies and GHG
be funded by redirecting investments in emissions burdens over their life-span.
additional energy production that will
be avoided by reduced energy demand in
buildings.
46
Chapter 5
Municipalities
1 3
priority actions
2 4
Make all publicly owned buildings
Support climate adaptive measures and
climate neutral, and all new buildings
goals through twinning programmes
energy-positive by 2020.
between cities and towns in developed
5
countries and in developing countries
and economies in transition.
Agree on a common assessment and
evaluation process to monitor progress
on tackling climate change.
1 3
priority actions
2 4
Train professionals and trades-people Help monitor quality assurance and
currently working in the building standards of low GHG emissions
sector and educate the next generation building performance.
5
of professionals to implement
sustainable building principles and
practices. Help communities adopt climate-
friendly behaviours and lifestyles.
47
Conclusions and Priority Actions
Private Sector
policies that make a difference & act as frontiers on their own buildings and
2 5
agents of change. rented offices.
7
climate neutral, zero net buildings.
improve climate adaptability.
2 4
term responsible lifestyles. impact of buildings.
5
emissions and social performance. environmental responsibility.
48
Chapter 5
49
Bibliography
Adalberth, K., Almgren, A. and Petersen, E. H. Carbon Monitoring for Action (CARMA) website,
(2001) Life cycle assessment of four multi-family http://greencodeproject.org/en/carma-power-
buildings, International Journal of Low Energy and plant-emissions
Sustainable Buildings, Vol. 2. Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. pp. 1-21. Carbon Trust 2005. The UK Climate Change
Programme: Potential Evolution for Business
Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005. When you and the Public Sector. Technical Report available
online: www.carbontrust.co.uk.
keep measuring it, you know even more about
CLASP (Collaborative Labelling and Appliances
it. Projected impacts 2005 – 2020. National
Standards Program), 2007. Standards and
appliances and equipment program. Report nb.
Labelling Programs Worldwide. [online]: www.
1920840 82 6.
clasponline.org.
51
Bibliography
EFA (Energy Futures Australia), 2002. in the European Union”. In: Proceedings of the
Mechanisms for promoting societal demand 2006 ACEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency
management. Sydney, Independent Pricing and in Buildings. 14 – 18 August 2006. Asilomar, CA,
Regulatory Tribunal (IPART) of New South Wales, U.S.A.
research paper no. 19.
Geller, H., P. Harrington, A. H. Rosenfeld, S.
ECS (Energy Charter Secretariat), 2002. Fiscal Tanishima and F. Unander, 2006. “Policies
policies for improving energy efficiency. Taxation, for increasing energy efficiencies. 30 years of
grants and subsidies. Brussels: ECS. experience in OECD countries”. Energy Policy.
34 (5): 556-573.
European Commission, 2008. “Proposal for a
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Gilligham, K., R. Newell, and K. Palmer, 2004.
Council on the energy performance of buildings”, ”The effectiveness and cost of energy efficiency
2008/0223 (COD), 13.11.2008, Brussels (http://
programmes”. Resources. Resources for the
eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=C
Future. Technical Paper.
OM:2008:0780:FIN:EN:PDF).
renewable energy and energy efficiency end-use liberalization”. In: Proceedings of the ECEEE
projects in developing countries”, Lund: Summer Study 2001. Stockholm: ECEEE. Paris:
International Institute for Industrial Environmental ADEME Editions.
Economics, report 2004:2.
Hinostroza, M., Cheng, C., Zhu, X., Figueres, C.,
Eyre, N. 1998. A golden age or a false dawn? & Avendano, F., 2007. Potentials and Barriers for
Energy efficiency in UK competitive energy End-use Energy Efficiency under Programmatic
markets. Energy Policy 26 (12): 963–972. CDM, UNEP Risø Centre.
Geissler, M., A. Waldmann, and R. Goldmann, Huang, J., 2007. “Energy efficiency building
2006. “Market development for energy services standards in China”. Report for APEC.
52
Bibliography
IEA (International Energy Agency), 2002. World Kristensen, P.E., 2007. UNEP-SBCI Workshop,
Energy Outlook 2002. 1-3 November 2007, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
-----, 2003. Cool appliances report. Policy Kushler, M., D. Work and P. Witte, 2004. “Five
strategies for energy efficient homes. years in: an examination of the first half decade of
public benefits energy efficiency policy”. American
-----, 2005. Key world energy statistics. Council for an Energy Efficient Economy. Report
U041.
-----, 2006. “Fact Sheet: Buildings and
Appliances”, Energy Technology Perspectives: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories LBL,
Scenarios & Strategies to 2050, Paris, France. (2007): Energy use in China, sectoral trends and
future outlook. in Energy Efficiency in Buildings –
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Transforming the Market. World Business Council
Change), 2007. Climate Change 2007:
for Sustainable Development, Geneva.
Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to
the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovern-
Levine, M., Urge-Vorsatz, D., Blok, K., Geng, L.,
mental Panel on Climate Change. [Metz, B., O.R.
Harvey, D., Land, S., Levermore, G., Mongameli
Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dve, L.A. Myer (eds)],
Mehlwana, A., Mirasgedis, S., Novikova, A.,
Cambridge, U.K. and New York, NY, U.S.A.,
Rlling, J., Yoshino, H., 2007, Residential and
Cambridge University Press, 2007.
commercial buildings, Climate Change 2007:
Mitigation, Contribution of Working Group III to
IPCC, 2007a: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovern-
Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III
mental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R.
to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergov-
Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
ernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. &
Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)].
New York, NY, U.S.A.
IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp.
Jeeninga, H., and M.A. Uyterlinde, 2000. “The Lin, J. 2002. Made for China: Energy Efficiency
sky is the limit! Or why can more efficient Standards and Labels for Household Appliances.
53
Bibliography
nef (new economics foundation), 2008. A Green in Germany and resulting recommendations
New Deal - Joined-up policies to solve the triple for energy efficiency policy. In Proceedings of
crunch of the credit crisis, climate change and the European Council for an Energy Efficiency
high oil prices. nef: London. Economy (ECEEE) Summer Study 2001.
Palmer, K. 1999. Electricity Restructuring: Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), 2008. General
Shortcut or Detour on the Road to Achieving Household Survey 2007, online: http://www.
Greenhouse Gas Reductions? Resources for the statssa.gov.za/publications/statsdownload.
Future Climate Issue Brief 18. asp?PPN=P0318&SCH=4187
Passive House Institute. [online]: http://www. Suzuki, M. and Oka, T. (1998) Estimation of life
pasivehouse.com cycle energy consumption and CO2 emission of
office buildings in Japan, Journal of Energy and
Pew Charitable Trusts, 2009. “The Clean Energy Buildings, Vol 28 pp. 33-41.
Economy: Repowering Jobs, Businesses and
Investments across America”. [online]: http:// Tonooka, Y., Hailin Mu, Yadong Ning, Yasuhiko
www.pewcenteronthestates.org/uploadedFiles/ Kondo, 2003. “Energy Consumption in
Clean_Economy_Report_Web.pdf. Residential House and Emissions Inventory of
GHGs, Air Pollutants in China”. Journal of Asian
REN (Renewable Energy Policy Network for the Architecture and Building Engineering. May 2003,
21st Century), 2009. Renewables Global Status issue 100.
Report, 2009 Update.
Torcellini, P., S. Pless, M. Deru, B. Griffith, N.
Ries, C. P., J. Jenkins, and O. Wise, 2009. Long, and R. Judkoff, 2006. “Lessons learned
“Improving the Energy Performance of Buildings: from Case Studies of Six High-Performance
Learning from the European Union and Australia”, Buildings”, National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Technical Report, Rand Corporation. Technical Report, NREL/TP-550-37542, June
Sanchez, A.B. and P. Poschen, 2009. “The social 2006.
and decent work dimensions of a new Agreement
on Climate Change”, ILO Technical Brief, Geneva, UK Department for Communities and Local
Switzerland. Government, 2008. “Definition of Zero
Carbon Homes and Non-Domestic Buildings”,
SBSTA (Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Consultation document, London.
Technological Advice to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change), UK Department for Communities and Local
2006. Synthesis report on technology needs Government, 2008a. Department for
identified by Parties not included in Annex I to Communities and Local Government (U.K.), 2008.
the Convention, FCCC/SBSTA/2006/INF.1. New “Improving the Energy Efficiency of Buildings – A
York: United Nations. Guide to Display Energy Certificates and advisory
reports for public buildings London. http://www.
Schlomaan, B., W. Eichhammer, and E. Gruber, diag.org.uk/media/44188/display%20energy%20
2001. “Labelling of electrical appliances – An certificates%20and%20advisory%20reports%20
evaluation of the Energy Labelling Ordinance guide.pdf
54
Bibliography
UNDESA (United Nations Department of Van Wie Mc Grory, L. Harris, J., Breceda Lapeyre,
Economic and Social Affairs), 2008. Climate M., Campbell, S., Constantine, S., della Cava,
Change: Technology Development and M., Martínez, J. G., Meyer, S., Romo, A. M. 2002.
Technology Transfer, Background document Market Leadership by Example: Government
prepared for the Beijing High-level Conference on Sector Energy Efficiency in Developing Countries.
Climate Change: Technology Development and Proceedings of the 2002 ACEEE Summer Study.
Technology Transfer, Beijing, China, 7-8 November Asilomar, CA. Report LBNL-5098.
2008.
Vine, E. 2005. An international survey of the
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), energy service company (ESCO) industry. Energy
2007. Buildings and Climate Change: Status, Policy, 33(5): 691-704.
Challenges and Opportunities, lead authors P.
Huovila, M. Ala-Juusela, L. Melchert, and S. WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable
Pouffary, 2007, UNEP Sustainable Buildings and Development), 2007. Energy Efficiency in
Climate Initiative, Paris. Buildings: Business Realities and Opportunities,
Switzerland.
-----, 2007a. Assessment of Policy Instruments
for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from -----, 2009. Energy Efficiency in Buildings –
Buildings, lead authors D. Urge-Vorsatz, and S. Transforming the Market, Switzerland (accessed
-----, 2008. The Kyoto Protocol, The Clean WEC (World Energy Council), 2004. Energy
Efficiency: A Worldwide Review. London.
Development Mechanism and the Building and
Construction Sector – A Report for the UNEP
WEC (World Energy Council), 2008. Energy
Sustainable Buildings and Construction Initiative,
Efficiency Policies around the World: Review and
lead authors C. Cheng, Pouffary, S., Svenningsen,
Evaluation. London.
N., Callaway, M. UNEP, Paris, France.
55
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
Contributing Authors Editors
Pekka Huovila and Mia Ala-Juusela (VTT Technical • Jenny Yamamoto, UNEP Consultant
Re-search Centre, Finland); Luciana Melchert • Peter Graham, United Nations Environment
(Sustainable Building and Urban Design Expert, Programme Sustainable Buildings & Climate
Brazil); and Stéphane Pouffary (ADEME – French Initiative (UNEP-SBCI) & Faculty of the Built
Agency for Environment and Energy Management, Environment, University of New South Wales,
and chairman for the SBCI Think Tank on Climate Australia
Change); Dr. Chia-Chin Cheng, UNEP Risoe Centre
for Energy & Climate Change; Professor Diana Design & Layout
Urge-Vorsatz & Sonja Koeppel, Central European Thad Mermer, The Graphic Environment
University, Hungary; Niclas Svenningsen, UNEP,
Peter Graham, UNEP.
Dr. Greg Foliente Principle Research Scientist Commonwealth Science & Industry Research Organisation,
Australia
Dr. Peter Graham Co-ordinator Sustainable Buildings & Climate Initiative UNEP – DTIE , Paris, &
University of New South Wales, Australia
Dr. Ying Hua Assistant Professor Department of Design and Environmental Analysis
Cornell University, USA
Dr. Rodney Milford Director Construction Industry Development Board, South Africa
Dr. Faridah Shafii Director Centre for Sustainable Construction & Tall Buildings, Institute
Sultan Iskandar, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Mr. Niclas Svenningsen Head, S.U.N. Unit UNEP – Division of Technology, Industry & Economics
Dr. Kaarin Taipale Chairperson Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable Buildings and Construction,
Finland
Dr. Diana Urge-Vorsatz Director Center for Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Policy (3CSEP)
& Professor - Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy -
Central European University
Dr. Ir. Iksan Van Der Putte Director External Relations/ RPS Groep B.V., The Netherlands’, Chair of Sustainability
International Environmental Affairs International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC)
This report was commissioned by the United Nations Environment Programme – Sustainable Buildings &
Climate Initiative.
56
UNEP-SBCI
SUN operates in synergy with existing initiatives and networks such as the Sustainable
Buildings and Construction Initiative, the High Level Committee on Management
Procurement Network, the UN Global compact, or the Marrakech Task Force on
Sustainable Public Procurement and many others.
ISBN: 987-92-807-3064-7
DTI/1240/PA