Foundational Branches

of Mathematics

These areas consider the framework in which mathematics itself is

carried out. To the extent that these consider particular mathematical topics, they border on
other areas of the Mathematics Subject.

Mathematical logic, or Symbolic Logic, lies at the heart of the

discipline, but a good understanding of the rules of logic came only after their first use.
Besides basic propositional logic used formally in computer science and philosophy as well
as mathematics, this field covers general logic and proof theory, leading to Model theory.
Here we find celebrated results such as the Gödel incompleteness theorem and Church's
thesis in recursion theory. Applications to set theory include the use of forcing to determine
the independence of the Continuum hypothesis. Applications to analysis include Nonstandard
analysis, an alternate perspective for calculus. Undecidability issues permeate algebra and
geometry as well. This heading includes Set Theory as well: axiomatizations of sets, cardinal
and ordinal arithmetic, and even Fuzzy Set theory.

Category theory, a comparatively new field of mathematics, provides a

universal framework for discussing different domains of study. Here the emphasis is not so
much on the underlying sets (the groups, manifolds, or whatever) as on the functions
between them and the relations which characterize them. One may attempt to base much of
mathematics on fundamental themes in this area (e.g. topoi rather than sets).

General algebraic systems include those structures with a very simple

axiom structure, as well as those structures not easily included with groups, rings, fields, or
the other algebraic systems. In this field one may consider the general nature of algebraic
axioms and how the different classes of them are related.
 Algebraic Areas of
Mathematics
The algebraic areas of mathematics developed from abstracting key
observations about our counting, arithmetic, algebraic manipulations, and symmetry.
Typically these fields define their objects of study by just a few axioms, then consider
examples, structure, and application of these objects. We have included here the
combinatorial topics and number theory; each is arguably a distinctive area of mathematics
but (as the MathMap suggests) these parts of mathematics, shown in shades of red, share
definite affinities.

The use of algebra is pervasive in mathematics. This particularly true of

group theory --- symmetry groups arise very naturally in almost every area of mathematics.
For example, Klein's vision of geometry was essentially to reduce it to a study of the
underlying group of invariants; Lie groups first arose from Lie's investigations of differential
equations. It is also true of linear algebra --- a field which, properly construed, includes huge
portions of Numerical Analysis and Functional Analysis, for example -- hence that field's
central position in the MathMap.

Number theory is one of the oldest branches of pure mathematics, and

one of the largest. Of course, it asks questions about numbers, usually meaning whole
numbers or rational numbers (fractions). Besides elementary topics involving congruences,
divisibility, primes, and so on, number theory now includes highly algebraic studies of rings
and fields of numbers; analytical methods applied to asymptotic estimates and special
functions; and geometric topics (e.g. the geometry of numbers) Important connections exist
with cryptography, mathematical logic, and even the experimental sciences.

Group theory studies those sets in which an invertible associative

"product" operation is defined. This includes the sets of symmetries of other mathematical
objects, giving group theory a place in all the rest of mathematics. Finite groups are perhaps
the best understood, but groups of matrices and symmetries of geometric patterns also give
central examples of groups.

Lie groups are an important special branch of group theory. They have
algebraic structure, of course, and yet are also subsets of space, and so have a geometry;
moreover, portions of them look just like Euclidean space, making it possible to do analysis
on them (e.g. solve differential equations). Thus Lie groups and other topological groups lie
at the convergence of the different areas of pure mathematics. They are quite useful in
application of mathematics to the sciences as well.
 Commutative rings are sets like the set of integers, allowing addition
and multiplication. Of particular interest are several classes of rings of interest in number
theory, field theory, algebraic geometry, and related areas; however, other classes of rings
arise, and a rich structure theory arises to analyze commutative rings in general, using the
concepts of ideals, localizations, and homological algebra.

Associative ring theory may be considered the non-commutative

analogue of the previous paragraph. This includes the study of matrix rings, division rings
such as the quaternions, and rings of importance in group theory. As in the previous
paragraph, various tools are studied to enable consideration of general rings.

Nonassociative ring theory widens the scope further. Here the general
theory is much weaker, but special cases of such rings are of key importance: Lie algebras in
particular, as well as Jordan algebras and other types.

Field theory looks at sets, such as the real number line, on which all the
usual arithmetic properties hold, including, now, those of division. The study of multiple
fields is important for the study of polynomial equations, and thus has applications to number
theory and group theory.

General algebraic systems include those structures with a very simple

axiom structure, as well as those structures not easily included with groups, rings, fields, or
the other algebraic systems.

Algebraic geometry combines the algebraic with the geometric for the
benefit of both. Thus the recent proof of "Fermat's Last Theorem" -- ostensibly a statement in
number theory -- was proved with geometric tools. Conversely, the geometry of sets defined
by equations is studied using quite sophisticated algebraic machinery. This is an enticing area
but the important topics are quite deep. This area includes elliptic curves.

Linear algebra, sometimes disguised as matrix theory, considers sets

and functions which preserve linear structure. In practice this includes a very wide portion of
mathematics! Thus linear algebra includes axiomatic treatments, computational matters,
algebraic structures, and even parts of geometry; moreover, it provides tools used for
analyzing differential equations, statistical processes, and even physical phenomena.

Category theory, a comparatively new field of mathematics, provides a

universal framework for discussing fields of algebra and geometry. While the general theory
and certain types of categories have attracted considerable interest, the area of homological
algebra has proved most fruitful in areas of ring theory, group theory, and algebraic topology.
 K-theory is an interesting blend of algebra and geometry.
Originally defined for (vector bundles over) topological spaces it is now also defined for
(modules over) rings, giving extra algebraic information about those objects.

Combinatorics, or Discrete Mathematics, looks at the structure

of sets in which certain subsets are distinguished. For example, a graph is a set of points in
which some edges -- sets of two points -- are given. Other combinatorial questions ask for a
count of the subsets of a set having a given property. This is a large field, of great interest to
computer scientists and others outside mathematics.

Ordered sets, or lattices, give a uniform structure to, for

example, the set of subfields of a field. Various special types of lattices have particularly nice
structure and have applications in group theory and algebraic topology.
 Number theory
Number theory is one of the oldest branches of pure mathematics,
and one of the largest. Of course, it concerns questions about numbers, usually meaning
whole numbers or rational numbers (fractions).

Elementary number theory involves divisibility among integers --

the division "algorithm", the Euclidean algorithm (and thus the existence of greatest common
divisors), elementary properties of primes (the unique factorization theorem, the infinitude of
primes), congruences (and the structure of the sets Z/nZ as commutative rings), including
Fermat's little theorem and Euler's theorem extending it. But the term "elementary" is usually
used in this setting only to mean that no advanced tools from other areas are used -- not that
the results themselves are simple.

Indeed, a course in "elementary" number theory usually includes

classic and elegant results such as Quadratic Reciprocity; counting results using the Möbius
Inversion Formula (and other multiplicative number-theoretic functions); and even the Prime
Number Theorem, asserting the approximate density of primes among the integers, which
has difficult but "elementary" proofs. Other topics in elementary number theory -- the
solutions of sets of linear congruence equations (the Chinese Remainder Theorem), or
solutions of single binary quadratic equations (Pell's equations and continued fractions), or
the generation of Fibonacci numbers or Pythagorean triples -- turn out in retrospect to be
harbingers of sophisticated tools and themes in other areas.

The remaining parts of number theory are more or less closely

allied with other branches of mathematics, and typically use tools from those areas.
For example, many questions in number theory may be posed as
Diophantine equations -- equations to be solved in integers -- without much preparation.
Catalan's conjecture -- are 8 and 9 the only consecutive powers? -- asks for the solution to
xa-yb=1 in integers; the Four Squares Theorem -- every natural number is the sum of four
integer squares -- simply asserts that x² + y² + z² + w² = n is solvable for all n. But the
attempt to solve these equations requires rather powerful tools from elsewhere in
mathematics to shed light on the the structure of the problem. (Even the possibility of
analyzing Diophantine equations -- Hilbert's tenth problem -- suggests the use of
mathematical logic; Matijasevic's negative solution of that problem guarantees number
theorists will never find a complete solution to their analyses!)
 We can try to subdivide number theory according to those other
tools used. Naturally there is significant overlap, and a single question from elementary
number theory often requires tools from many branches of number theory.

"Combinatorial Number Theory" involves the number-

theoretic study of objects which arise naturally from counting or iteration. This includes a
study of many specific families of numbers -- the binomial coefficients, the Fibonacci
numbers, Bernoulli numbers, factorials, perfect squares, partition numbers and so on -- which
can be obtained by simple recurrence relations, say, or as values of polynomials. One asks for
their factorizations, their congruence properties, their densities, etc. It is very easy to state
conjectures in this area which can often be understood without any particular mathematical
training, but which can be very difficult to solve; Erdös has left many conjectures of this sort.

"Algebraic Number Theory" extends the concept of "number"

to mean an element of some ring, usually the ring of integers in a finite algebraic extension
of the rational number field. These arise naturally even when considering elementary topics
(e.g. the representation of an integer as a sum of two squares is tantamount to its factorization
in the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers) but are also interesting in their own right. In this
setting, the familiar features of the natural numbers (e.g. unique factorization) need not hold.
The virtue of the machinery introduced -- class groups, discriminants, Galois theory, field
cohomology, class field theory, group representations and L-functions -- is that it allows a
reconstruction of some of that order in these new settings.

A key feature of some problems in number theory is the extent to

which the behaviour of the problem in integers is reflected in its behaviour modulo p for all
primes p, and its behaviour in the real line. The correct construction for the investigation of
this phenomenon is usually a local ring such as the p-adic integers. These fields provide an
opportunity for unusual forms of analysis (e.g. series converge iff their terms converge to
zero -- the calculus student's dream!) Local analysis usually arises as a part of algebraic
number theory.

"Analytic Number Theory" involves the study of the Riemann

zeta function and other similar functions such as Dirichlet series. The zeta function may be
defined on half the complex plane as the sum 1 + 1/2s + 1/3s + 1/4s + ...; its connection with
number theory results from its factorization as a product Prod(1 - 1/p^s )^(-1), the product
taken over all primes p. Thus for example the distribution of the primes among the integers
can be deduced from a good understanding of the behaviour of zeta(s). The Riemann
Hypothesis states that zeta(s) is never zero except along the line Re(s)=1/2 (or at the negative
even integers).
 This is arguably the most important open question in
mathematics. There are other related functions, useful either for studying the Riemann zeta
function or for making similar conclusions about other sets; for example, one may use them
to prove the infinitude of primes in candidate linear progressions.

Other areas of number theory are also quite analytical. For

example, "additive number theory" asks about ways of expressing an integer N as a sum of
integers a_i in a set A. If we set f(z) = Sum exp(2 pi i a_i z), then f(z)^k has exp(2 pi i N z) as
a summand iff N is a sum of k of the a_i. This in turn can be deduced from some integration
(the integral of exp(a z) around a circle is 0 or not depending on whether a is zero). Thus
analytical techniques are used to approach Waring's problem, for example (representing
integers as sums of squares, cubes, etc.), and to address other questions with exponential
sums. Since these computations are equivalent to work in the rings Z/nZ, there is an interest
in the structure of these rings.

One may include in this analytic category the parts of number

theory connected with forms (e.g. quadratic forms are quadratic polynomials in several
variables). Broadly speaking the goal here is to analyze the possible equivalence classes of
functions under groups of symmetries.

Even when few analytic tools are used for the analysis of the
functions themselves, the groups of interest (e.g. the discontinuous groups acting on the
complex upper half-plane) are well understood in areas of analysis.
Also, ideas from analysis (measure theory, dimension) can be used in "probabilistic number
theory", in which one studies almost-periodic, pseudo-random, or fractal behaviour of
number-theoretic functions.

Finally, a significant amount of analysis is also used in Sieve

methods, and other aspects of multiplicative number theory. Here one generalizes the sieve of
Eratosthenes to investigate the presence of, say, prime pairs (Brun's sieve) or solutions to the
Goldbach conjecture (every even number is a sum of two primes).

"Transcendental number theory" considers proofs of

transcendence or algebraicity of numbers, and the extent to which numbers can be
approximated by algebraic numbers (say). This has a direct bearing on other fields such as
Diophantine equations, for example, since the unsolvability of a Diophantine equation can be
deduced from the observation that it would require rational numbers which approximate
a real number "too well". Well-known results in this area include the transcendence of pi,
which in turn shows the impossibility of squaring the circle.
 "Geometric number theory" incorporates all forms of
geometry. The classical Geometry of Numbers due to Minkowski begins with statements of
Euclidean geometry on lattices (A convex body contains a lattice point if its volume is large
enough); by extension this becomes the study of quadratic forms on lattices, and thus a
method of investigating regular packings of spheres, say. But one may also investigate
algebraic geometry with number theory, that is, one may study varieties such as algebraic
curves and surfaces and ask if they have rational or integral solutions (points with rational or
integral coordinates). This topic includes the highly successful theory of elliptic curves
(where the rational points form a finitely generated group) and finiteness results (e.g.
Siegel's, Thue's, or Faltings's) which apply to integral or higher-genus situations.

"Computational number theory" studies the effectiveness of

algorithms for computation of number-theoretic quantities. Considerable effort has been
expended in primality-testing and integer factorization routines, for example -- procedures
which are in principle trivial, but whose naive solution is untenable in large cases. This field
also considers integer quantities (e.g the class number) whose usual definition is
nonconstructive, and real quantities (e.g. the values of zeta functions) which must be
computed with very high precision; thus this overlaps both computer algebra and numerical
analysis.
 Geometric Areas of
Mathematics
Here we consider all the fields which exercise our geometric
intuition: from Euclidean and analytic geometry to tilings and tessellations, from the Klein
bottle to knots, along with curvature, soap bubbles and the very idea of dimension.

One of the oldest areas of mathematical discovery, geometry has

undergone several rebirths over the centuries. At one extreme, geometry includes the very
precise study of rigid structures first seen in Euclid's Elements; at the other extreme, general
topology focuses on the very fundamental kinships among shapes

Geometry is studied from many perspectives! This large area

includes classical Euclidean geometry and synthetic (non-Euclidean) geometries; analytic
geometry; incidence geometries (including projective planes); metric properties (lengths and
angles); and combinatorial geometries such as those arising in finite group theory. Many
results in this area are basic in either the sense of simple, or useful, or both.

Convex and discrete geometry includes the study of convex

subsets of Euclidean space. A wealth of famous results distinguishes this family of sets (e.g.
Brouwer's fixed-point theorem, the isoperimetric problems). This classification also includes
the study of polygons and polyhedra, and frequently overlaps discrete mathematics and
group theory; through piece-wise linear manifolds, it intersects topology. This area also
includes tilings and packings in Euclidean space.

Differential geometry is the language of modern physics as well as

an area of mathematical delight. Typically, one considers sets which are manifolds (that is,
locally resemble Euclidean space) and which come equipped with a measure of distances. In
particular, this includes classical studies of the curvature of curves and surfaces. Local
questions both apply and help study differential equations; global questions often invoke
algebraic topology.
 Topology in mathematics

General topology studies spaces on which one has only a loose

notion of "closeness" -- enough to decide which functions are continuous. Typically one
studies spaces with some additional structure -- metric spaces, say, or compact Hausdorff
spaces -- and looks to see how properties such as compactness are shared with subspaces,
product spaces, and so on. Widely applicable in geometry and analysis, topology also allows
for some bizarre examples and set-theoretic conundra.

Algebraic topologyis the study of algebraic objects attached to

topological spaces; the algebraic invariants illustrate some of the rigidity of the spaces. This
includes various (co)homology theories, homotopy groups, and groups of maps, as well as
some rather more geometric tools such as fiber bundles. The algebraic machinery (mostly
derived from homological algebra) is powerful if rather daunting.

Manifolds are spaces like the sphere which look locally like
Euclidean space. In particular, these are the spaces in which we can discuss (locally-)linear
maps, and the spaces in which to discuss smoothness. They include familiar surfaces. Cell
complexes are spaces made of pieces which are part of Euclidean space, generalizing
polyhedra. These types of spaces admit very precise answers to questions about existence of
maps and embeddings; they are particularly amenable to calculations in algebraic topology;
they allow a careful distinction of various notions of equivalence. These are the most classic
spaces on which groups of transformations act. This is also the setting for knot theory.
 Analytic areas of
Mathematics

Analysis looks carefully at the results obtained in calculus and

related areas. One might characterize algebra and geometry as the search for elegant
conclusions from small sets of axioms; in analysis on the other hand the measure of success
is more frequently the ability to hone a tool which could be applied throughout science. Thus
in particular, most of the calculations are done with the real numbers or complex numbers
being implicitly understood.

Calculus and real analysis

Differentiation, integration, series, and so on are familiar to

students of elementary calculus. But these topics lead in a number of distinct directions when
pursued with greater care and in greater detail. The central location of these fields in the
MathMap is indicative of the utility in other branches of mathematics, particularly
throughout analysis.
*Real functions are those studied in calculus classes; the focus
here is on their derivatives and integrals, and general inequalities. This category includes
familiar functions such as rational functions. This seems the most appropriate area to receive
questions concerning elementary calculus.

*Measure theory and integration is the study of lengths, surface

area, and volumes in general spaces. This is a critical feature of a full development of
integration theory; moreover, it provides the basic framework for probability theory. Measure
theory is a meeting place between the tame applicability of real functions and the wild
possibilities of set theory. This is the setting for fractal.
 * Special functions are just that: specialized functions beyond the
familiar trigonometric or exponential functions. The ones studied (hypergeometric functions,
orthogonal polynomials, and so on) arise very naturally in areas of analysis, number theory,
Lie groups, and combinatorics. Very detailed information is often available.

* Finite differences and functional equations both involve

deducing properties of functions, as in differential equations, but the premises are different:
with difference equations, the defining relation is not a differential equation but a difference
of values of the function. Functional equations have as premises (usually) algebraic
relationships among the values of a function at several points.

*Sequences and series are really just the most common examples
of limiting processes; convergence criteria and rates of convergence are as important as
finding "the answer". (In the case of sequences of functions, it's also important to find "the
question"!) One studies particular series of interest (e.g. Taylor series of known functions), as
well as general methods for computing sums rapidly, or formally. Series can be estimated
with integrals, their stability can be investigated with analysis. Manipulations of series (e.g.
multiplying or inverting) are also of importance.
 Complex variables
Complex variables are often accepted in other parts of analysis
when this causes no essential change in the theory; but here we focus on those aspects of
analytic behaviour unique to complex functions. These functions and those used to describe
phenomena in part of mathematical physics both display a considerable degree of regularity
not found in general functions of a real variable.

* Complex variables studies the effect of assuming

differentiability of functions defined on complex numbers. The effect is markedly different
than for real functions: these functions are much more rigidly constrained, and in particular it
is possible to make very definite comments about their global behaviour, convergence, and
so on. This area includes Riemann surfaces, which look locally like the complex plane but
aren't the same space. Complex-variable techniques have great use in applied areas
(including electromagnetics, for example).

*Potential theory studies harmonic functions (and their allies).

Mathematically, these are solutions to the Laplace equation Del(u)=0; physically, they are the
functions giving the potential energy throughout space resulting from some masses or
electric charges.

*Several complex variables is, naturally, the study of

(differentiable) functions of more than one complex variable. The rigid constraints imposed
by complex differentiability imply that, at least locally, these functions behave almost like
polynomials. In particular, study of the related spaces tends to resemble algebraic geometry,
except that tools of analysis are used in addition to algebraic constructs. Differential
equations on these spaces and automorphisms of them provide useful connections with these
other areas.

*Differential and integral equations Differential and integral

equations seeks to describe functions f(X) using relationships between and its derivatives or
integrals; study of differential operators and their applications in mathematics.

* Global analysis, or analysis on manifolds, studies the global

nature of differential equations on manifolds. In addition to local tools from ordinary
differential equation theory, global techniques include the use of topological spaces of
mappings. In this heading also we find general papers on manifold theory, including infinite-
dimensional manifolds and manifolds with singularities (hence catastrophe theory), as well
as optimization problems.
 * Ordinary differential equations are equations to be solved in
which the unknown element is a function, rather than a number, and in which the known
information relates that function to its derivatives. Few such equations admit an explicit
answer, but there is a wealth of qualitative information describing the solutions and their
dependence on the defining equation. There are many important classes of differential
equations for which detailed information is available. Applications to engineering and the
sciences abound. Today, numerical solutions are actively studied.

* Partial differential equations begin with much the same

formulation as ordinary differential equations, except that the functions to be found are
functions of several variables. Again, one generally looks for qualitative statements about the
solution. For example, in many cases, solutions exist only if some of the parameters lie in a
specific set (say, the set of integers). Various broad families of PDE's admit general
statements about the behaviour of their solutions. This area has a long-standing close
relationship with the physical sciences, especially physics, thermodynamics, and quantum
mechanics.

* Dynamical systems is the study of iteration of functions from a

space to itself -- in discrete repetitions or in a continuous flow of time. Thus in principle this
field is closely allied to differential equations on manifolds, but in practice the focus is on the
underlying sets (invariant sets or limit sets) and on the chaotic behaviour of limiting systems.
[Not shown on MathMap because it was newly formed in 2000 from portions of 58, 35, and
other areas.]

*Integral equations, naturally, seek functions which satisfy

relationships with their integrals. For example, the value of a function at each time may be
related to its average value over all preceding time. Included in this area are equations
mixing integration and differentiation. Many of the themes from differential equations recur:
qualitative questions, methods of approximation, specific types of equations of interest,
transforms and operators useful for simplifying the problems.

*Calculus of variations and optimization seek functions or

geometric objects which are optimize some objective function. Certainly this includes a
discussion of techniques to find the optima, such as successive approximations or linear
programming. In addition, there is quite a lot of work establishing the existence of optima
and characterizing them. In many cases, optimal functions or curves can be expressed as
solutions to differential equations. Common applications include seeking curves and surfaces
which are minimal in some sense. However, the spaces on which the analysis are done may
represent configurations of some physical system, say, so that this field also applies to
optimization problems in economics or control theory.
 Theory of functions

Here we mean the study of vector spaces of functions. This can

include the abstract study of topological vector spaces as well as the study of particular
spaces of interest, including attention to their bases (e.g. Fourier Analysis), and linear maps
on them (e.g. Integral Transforms).

* Functional analysis views the big picture in differential

equations, for example, thinking of a differential operator as a linear map on a large set of
functions. Thus this area becomes the study of (infinite-dimensional) vector spaces with
some kind of metric or other structure, including ring structures (Banach algebras and C-*
algebras for example). Appropriate generalizations of measure, derivatives, and duality also
belong to this area.

* Fourier analysis studies approximations and decompositions of

functions using trigonometric polynomials. Of incalculable value in many applications of
analysis, this field has grown to include many specific and powerful results, including
convergence criteria, estimates and inequalities, and existence and uniqueness results.
Extensions include the theory of singular integrals, Fourier transforms, and the study of the
appropriate function spaces. This heading also includes approximations by other orthogonal
families of functions, including orthogonal polynomials and wavelets.

*Abstract harmonic analysis if Fourier series is the study of

periodic real functions, that is, real functions which are invariant under the group of integer
translations, then abstract harmonic analysis is the study of functions on general groups
which are invariant under a subgroup. This includes topics of varying level of specificity,
including analysis on Lie groups or locally compact Abelian groups. This area also overlaps
with representation theory of topological groups.

*Integral transforms include the Fourier transform (see above)

as well as the transforms of Laplace, Radon, and others. (The general theory of
transformations between function spaces is part of Functional Analysis, above.) Also
includes convolution operators and operational calculs.

* Operator theory studies transformations between the vector

spaces studied in Functional Analysis, such as differential operators or self-adjoint operators.
The analysis might study the spectrum of an individual operator or the semigroup structure of
a collection of them.
 Analysis of Numerical
Topics
Here we consider fields of mathematics which address the
issues of how to carry out --- numerically or even in principle --- those computations and
algorithms which are treated formally or abstractly in other branches of analysis. These fields
have shown enormous growth in recent decades in response to demands for effective, robust
solutions to demanding problems from science, engineering, and other quantitative
applications.

* Numerical analysis involves the study of methods of

computing numerical data. In many problems this implies producing a sequence of
approximations; thus the questions involve the rate of convergence, the accuracy (or even
validity) of the answer, and the completeness of the response. (With many problems it is
difficult to decide from a program's termination whether other solutions exist.) Since many
problems across mathematics can be reduced to linear algebra, this too is studied
numerically; here there are significant problems with the amount of time necessary to
process the initial data. Numerical solutions to differential equations require the
determination not of a few numbers but of an entire function; in particular, convergence must
be judged by some global criterion. Other topics include numerical simulation, optimization,
and graphical analysis, and the development of robust working code.

* Approximations and expansions primarily concern the

approximation of classes of real functions by functions of special types. This includes
approximations by linear functions, polynomials (not just the Taylor polynomials), rational
functions, and so on; approximations by trigonometric polynomials is separated into the
separate field of Fourier analysis. Topics include criteria for goodness of fit, error bounds,
stability upon change of approximating family, and preservation of functional characteristics
(e.g. differentiability) under approximation. Effective techniques for specific kinds of
approximation are also prized. This is also the area covering interpolation and splines.

* Operations research may be loosely described as the study of

optimal resource allocation. Mathematically, this is the study of optimization. Depending on
the options and constraints in the setting, this may involve linear programming, or quadratic-,
convex-, integer-, or boolean-programming.
 Applications to the Sciences
Historically, it has been the needs of the physical sciences which
have driven the development of many parts of mathematics, particularly analysis. The
applications are sometimes difficult to classify mathematically, since tools from several areas
of mathematics may be applied. We focus on these applications not by discussing the nature
of their discipline but rather their interaction with mathematics.

*Mechanics of particles and systems studies dynamics of sets of

particles or solid bodies, including rotating and vibrating bodies. Uses variational principles
(energy-minimization) as well as differential equations.

*Mechanics of deformable solids considers questions of

elasticity and plasticity, wave propagation, engineering, and topics in specific solids such as
soils and crystals.

*Fluid mechanics studies air, water, and other fluids in motion:

compression, turbulence, diffusion, wave propagation, and so on. Mathematically this
includes study of solutions of differential equations, including large-scale numerical methods
e.g the finite-element method.

*Optics, electromagnetic theory is the study of the propagation

and evolution of electromagnetic waves, including topics of interference and diffraction.
Besides the usual branches of analysis, this area includes geometric topics such as the paths
of light rays.

*Classical thermodynamics, heat transfer is the study of the

flow of heat through matter, including phase change and combustion. Historically, the source
of Fourier series.

*Quantum Theory studies the solutions of the Schrödinger

(differential) equation. Also includes a good deal of Lie group theory and quantum group
theory, theory of distributions and topics from Functional analysis, Yang-Mills problems,
Feynman diagrams, and so on.
 *Statistical mechanics, structure of matter is the study of large-
scale systems of particles, including stochastic systems and moving or evolving systems.
Specific types of matter studied include fluids, crystals, metals, and other solids.

*Relativity and gravitational theory is differential geometry,

analysis, and group theory applied to physics on a grand scale or in extreme situations (e.g.
black holes and cosmology).

*Astronomy and astrophysics , as celestial mechanics is,

mathematically, part of Mechanics of Particles , the principal applications in this area appear
to be concerning the structure, evolution, and interaction of stars and galaxies.

*Geophysics applications typically involve material in

Mechanics and Fluid mechanics, as above, but for large-scale problems this subject deals
with a very big solid and a large pool of fluid!.

*Systems theory; control study the evolution over time of

complex systems such as those in engineering. In particular, one may try to identify the
system -- to determine the equations or parameters which govern its development -- or to
control the system -- to select the parameters (e.g. via feedback loops) to achieve a desired
state. Of particular interest are issues in stability (steady-state configurations) and the effects
of random changes and noise (stochastic systems). While popularly the domain of
"cybernetics" or "robotics", perhaps, this is in practice a field of application of differential (or
difference) equations, functional analysis, numerical analysis, and global analysis (or
differential geometry).

*Biology and other natural sciences whose connections merit

explicit connection in the MSC scheme include Chemistry, Biology, Genetics, and Medicine,
In chemistry and biochemistry, it is clear that graph theory, differential geometry, and
differential equations play a role. Medical technology uses techniques of information transfer
and visualization. Biology (including taxonomy and archaeobiology) use statistical inference
and other tools.

*Game theory, economics, social and behavioral

sciences including Psychology, Sociology, and other social sciences as a group. The more
behavioural sciences (including Linguistics!) use a medley of statistical techniques, including
experimental design and other rather combinatorial topics. Economics and finance also make
use of statistical tools, especially time-series analysis; some topics, such as voting theory, are
more combinatorial. This category also includes game theory, which is actually not about
games at all but rather about optimization; which combination of strategies leads to an
optimal outcome.
 Computational and
Information Sciences

By design of the Mathematics Subject Classification, literature

concerning specific computations and algorithms is classified with the area of mathematics to
which the computations are applied. But mathematics can return the favor and study the
process by which machines carry out their information handling.

Computer science, today more accurately a separate discipline,

considers a number of rather mathematical topics. In addition to computability questions
arising from many problems in discrete mathematics, and logic questions related to recursion
theory, one must consider scheduling questions, stochastic models, and so on.

Information and communication includes questions of particular

interest to algebraists, especially coding theory (related to linear algebra and finite groups)
and encryption (related to number theory and combinatorics). Many topics appropriate to this
area can be expressed in graph-theoretic terms, such as network flows and circuit design.
Data compression and visualization overlap with statistics.

Systems theory; control study the evolution over time of complex

systems such as those in engineering. In particular, one may try to identify the system -- to
determine the equations or parameters which govern its development -- or to control the
system -- to select the parameters (e.g. via feedback loops) to achieve a desired state. Of
particular interest are issues in stability (steady-state configurations) and the effects of
random changes and noise (stochastic systems). While popularly the domain of "cybernetics"
or "robotics", perhaps, this is in practice a field of application of differential (or difference)
equations, functional analysis, numerical analysis, and global analysis (or differential
geometry).
 Conclusion
Modern mathematics has expanded far beyond the study of
calculus and differential equations that has helped scientists to cope with continuous
processes and, as well, beyond the developments in probability and statistics that have
advanced the mathematical treatment of discrete processes. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–
1855), perhaps the greatest modern mathematician, made deep contributions to almost all
areas of the subject. By the early twentieth century, however, the scope of mathematics had
grown so large that no single mathematician could claim to have mastered more than a small
portion of the field.
The attraction of mathematics as a worthy human interest lies in
discovering and establishing surprising and interesting connections between apparently
disparate mathematical ideas that have not yet been fully comprehended. Mathematicians
pursue useful goals, but while attaining them they often meet new ideas without immediate
practical value that are appealing in their own right. Sometimes, intriguingly, these ideas
prove to be surprisingly useful, whereas their initial appeal is only aesthetic in the sense that
they seem to call for an imaginative synthesis expressed with clarity and style. "The love of a
subject in itself and for itself, where it is not the sleepy pleasure of pacing a mental quarter-
deck, is the love of style as manifested in that study," said the mathematician and philosopher
Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947).

Whitehead contended that pure mathematics, in its modern

developments, may claim to be the most original creation of the human spirit. A similar claim
might be made in connection with an often overlooked feature of its ancient development.
Howard deLong perceptively observes inA Profile of Mathematical Logic (1970) that early
Greek interest in abstract thought owes much to the expansion, from the physical to the
mental arena, of the familiar spirit of competition and play. The sportive aspect of the play of
the mind, which animates mathematics in

In A Mathematician's Apology (1940), G. H. Hardy (1877-1947)

bases his defense upon aesthetic grounds and confesses a genuine passion for his calling.
Something akin to Hardy's passion is known to all who have experienced the revelation that
follows a spell of total concentration and have found themselves echoing in their own tongue
Archimedes's famous cry of eureka ("I have found it"). Mathematicians count heavily upon
the spirit that compels such engagements and articulates such an involuntary cry of delight.
What transpires under its spell may even seem like something done to—rather than by—a
mathematician. No one seems ever to have argued, however, that a calling to an
Archimedean engagement implies the existence of a "caller." Attitudes of mathematicians
toward religion range from Whitehead's well-known sympathy for the religious experience to
Hardy's strongly opposing view.