CHAPTER 2

STRESS

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER

By the end of the chapter you will be able to:

ΠDefine the concept of stress;

ΠDescribe the various ways in which roles can become stressful;
ΠUnderstand the effect of stress on decision making;
ΠUnderstand the notions of over and under stimulation;
ΠDescribe the evidence for Type A and Type B personalities;
ΠDescribe individual methods of coping with stress;
ΠDistinguish between individually focused and organizationally based work site stress
management techniques

BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER

ΠIntroduction
ΠWhat is stress?
ΠTypes of stress at work
ΠRole interaction
ΠDecision making stress
ΠOver-and under-stimulation
Œ Type A’s and type Bs
ΠOccupational stress management
ΠConclusion

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

This chapter critically examines the concept of stress, identifying common causes of
stress at work and assessing the extent to which stress can be ‘managed’ and
alleviated in the workplace.

ANNOTATED LECTURE OUTLINE

Point 1 – Introduction

The prevalence of stress-related symptoms in occupational and wider contexts has

given rise to much interest in the causes and alleviation of stress. However, the
concept of stress is by no means straightforward.

Point 2 – What is stress?

There is considerable debate about what the word actually refers to. The common sense view
of stress is that it is a combination of external stressors and our response or the physical and
psychological strain we experience as a result. Stress was conceptualized as a response in the
early research of Selye (1936).

A number of researchers have not followed Selye in seeing stress as a response. One major
group of writers has argued that stress has to be seen as a function of an individual’s appraisal
of a situation. This implies that events in the environment are not of themselves stressful;
they must be perceived by the individuals as a threat before the stress concept can be applied.
The stress experience, according to this view, is therefore determined by the appraisal of what
is at stake and the analysis of the resources available to meet the demand.

The concept of stress that dominates current research is an extension of the appraisal
hypothesis that stress represents a relationship between a stressor and an individual’s reaction
to it (Beehr, 1995).

Current research is based on the assumption of stress, inferred from physiological,

behavioural, psychological and somatic signs and symptoms, is the result of a lack of fit
between a person (in terms of their personality, aptitudes and abilities) and the environment
and a consequent inability to cope effectively with the various demands that it makes of him
or her.

Point 3 – Types of stress at work

Role interaction
A role can be defined as the set of expectations that others have of a role incumbent’s
behaviour. There are a number of ways in which roles can become stressful.

ΠRole ambiguity Рis information deficiency, potential sources of which are peers,

manager, subordinates and customers. Studies show that role ambiguity reduces
organizational commitment, job involvement and job satisfaction.
ΠBoundary spanning roles Рthese are roles which involve taking the activities of the
organization to the outside world and seem to carry a higher than average level of stress
ΠSingle role conflict Рthis form of role stress is caused by the various components of a
role becoming difficult to reconcile. This is particularly prevalent in ‘first line
supervisory’ roles, particularly when an individual has been promoted from the team and
the expectations of the supervisor’s staff conflict with the expectations of the supervisor’s
managers.
ΠMultiple role conflict Рpeople invariably fill more than one role and multiple role
conflict in some degree is inevitable.
ΠWork role transitions Рthis refers to the stress experienced when an individual enters a
new job and is faced with a novel, uncertain environment
ΠBurnout - this occurs when individuals feel locked into roles. Such stress is particularly
common in large bureaucratic organizations where very few job opportunities are
available

Point 4 – Decision- making stress

Uncertainty is currently seen as the underlying source of much occupational stress.

To reduce some forms of uncertainty, individuals can make decisions but the
decision making process itself is not stress-free. In the process, individuals may
experience an acute form of uncertainty. They may become aware of the limitations
of their knowledge and abilities and the losses which may result from choosing any of
the options available. This makes decisional stress a particularly potent form of
stress, which may result in a significant reduction in the quality of an individual’s
decision making.

Point 5 – Over and under-stimulation

The level of stimulation a job provides is associated with the amount of stress it can
cause employees to experience.
ΠUnder-stimulation can occur in jobs that involve repetitive work and under-utilization of
skills. The emotional responses to these jobs are apathy, boredom and reduced levels of
motivation.
ΠOver-stimulation can be as stressful, if not more so, than under-stimulation. Long hours
and excessive workloads inevitably lead to stress-related problems such as increased
alcohol and cigarette consumption, depression and low self-esteem.

Point 6 – Type As and type Bs

It is now accepted that individuals differ in their proneness to stress-related health

risks. In 1959 Friedman and Rosenmann made a controversial contribution to the
understanding of the relationship between stress and heart disease. They
operationalized a behaviour pattern termed type A.

Individuals who fall into the type-A category display:

1. A strong and sustained drive to achieve poorly defined goals they have set for
themselves
2. An intense desire to compete
3. A desire for recognition and promotion
4. Involvement in numerous and varied activities which have deadlines
5. Habitually fast completion of physical and mental functions
6. High levels of mental and physical alertness

The type-B individual displays less striving, aggression, hostility and competitiveness
and is generally more relaxed. While these are extremes, most people fall into only
one of the categories.

Point 7 – Occupational stress management

Interest in stress management has burgeoned in recent years, with numerous

consultants and trainers delivering stress management programmes. Individuals are
not passive recipients of workplace pressures; if left alone we can develop our own
characteristic coping strategies. Research carried out by a number of psychologists
indicates that individuals adopt one of the following strategies:

ΠAppraisal focused Рindividuals may undertake a conscious logical analysis of what is

troubling them
ΠProblem focused Рindividuals actively tackle the problems causing their stress. This can
involve obtaining guidance by talking the problem through or it might involve taking
direct action. One form of direct action identified by Bunce and West (1996) in work
groups was role innovation. They found that individuals who had innovated in their roles
demonstrated improvements in work related stress.
ΠEmotion focused Рemotional defences are engaged which help individuals manager their
anxieties.

1. First by affective regulation individuals try to avoid paying attention to them

2. Secondly by resigned acceptance individuals accept the situation and expect the worst is
likely to occur
3. Thirdly by using palliatives such as smoking, daydreaming, taking a day off
4. Fourthly through emotional discharge – this form of behaviour can include violence

Investigations of the relationship between coping strategies and stress outcomes have
demonstrated that individuals using the active appraisal or problem-focused strategies
experience fewer harmful physical and psychological outcomes than those using the passive
avoidance methods.

Interventions in the worksite can have an organizational or individual focus. These can be
primary – dealing with the source of the problem through better work design – or secondary –
providing individuals with enhanced coping skills. Table 2.1 page 52 indicates the number of
possible interventions. The most effective approaches may be those that the straddle the two
domains – individual and organizational.

Point 8 – Conclusion

Stress is the outcome of some of the characteristics of modern market economies –

uncertainty, high demands and low control. It is not restricted to certain occupational
groups, nor it is simply ‘out there’; rather it is the result of an interaction between and
individual’s emotional. Intellectual, social and physical resources and the demands
on him or her.

Individuals develop their own coping strategies, some more effective than others, and
increasingly organizations are using stress-management techniques to encourage effective
coping.

What is important and urgent is for a new generation of stress-management research, focusing
upon what the active ingredients of stress-management programmes are.

DISCUSSION POINTS

1. You are the Human Resource team within an innovative manufacturing organization,
which has just implemented some new manufacturing initiatives. Since the inception of
these techniques, there has been a marked increase in the number of stress related
incidents. To overcome this growing problem, you want your organization to provide
stress management training.

As a group, put together a business case to be presented to senior

management, to encourage them to adopt a stress management
programme.

2. Single role conflict is particularly prevalent in ‘first line supervisory’ roles. Design a
training programme, which would address this problem.

3. According to strategic management consultancy Datamonitor, call centres in Europe are

expanding at an astonishing rate of 40% per year. By 2001,2.2% of the UK workforce
will be employed in them. Chris Stephens is a department manager in a new call centre,
which has been set up very hurriedly. She is concerned that as a result of this, the people
issues have been neglected.

The employees within the call centre call themselves ‘battery hens’ as they
work in cramped conditions and have little control over the pace of work.
Stress levels and staff turnover are exceptionally high in relation to other
conventional office environments Chris has worked in.

ΠDiscuss this situation, analyzing the reasons why stress levels may be so high. A review
of F W Taylor’s principles will support your findings.

ΠWhat can the organization do to alleviate the problem?

4. High stress levels in an organization are often considered the norm and accepted way of
working. How would you attempt to change such an entrenched culture, in an attempt to
lower stress levels?

Reference
Call Centres in Europe 1996 – 2001: Vertical Market Opportunities. Datamonitor, 1996.