PROLOGUE

Most of the students of Electronics Engineering are exposed to Integrated Circui

ts (IC's) at a very basic level, involving SSI (small scale integration) circuit
s like logic gates or MSI (medium scale integration) circuits like multiplexers,
parity encoders etc. But there is a lot bigger world out there involving miniat
urization at levels so great, that a micrometer and a microsecond are literally
considered huge! This is the world of VLSI - Very Large Scale Integration. The a
rticle aims at trying to introduce to the possibilities and the work involved in
this field.
INTRODUCTION
What is VLSI? VLSI stands for "Very Large Scale Integration". This is the field,
which involves packing more and more logic devices into smaller and smaller are
as. Thanks to VLSI, circuits that would have taken boardfuls of space can now be
put into a small space few millimeters across! This has opened up a big opportu
nity to do things that were not possible before. VLSI circuits are everywhere ..
. your computer, your car, your brand new state-of-the-art digital camera, the c
ell-phones, and what have you. All this involves a lot of expertise on many fron
ts within the same field, which we will look at in later sections. VLSI has been
around for a long time, there is nothing new about it ... but as a side effect
of advances in the world of computers, there has been a dramatic proliferation o
f tools that can be used to design VLSI circuits. Alongside, obeying Moore's law
, the capability of an IC has increased exponentially over the years, in terms o
f computation power, utilization of available area, yield. The combined effect o
f these two advances is that people can now put diverse functionality into the I
C's, opening up new frontiers. Examples are embedded systems, where intelligent
devices are put inside everyday objects, and ubiquitous computing where small co
mputing devices proliferate to such an extent that even the shoes you wear may a
ctually do something useful like monitoring your heartbeats! These two fields ar
e related, and getting into their description can easily lead to another article
.

DEALING WITH VLSI CIRCUITS

Digital VLSI circuits are predominantly CMOS based. The way normal blocks like l
atches and gates are implemented is different from what students have seen so fa
r, but the behavior remains the same. All the miniaturization involves new thing
s to consider. A lot of thought has to go into actual implementations as well as
design. Let us look at some of the factors involved...
1. Circuit Delays. Large complicated circuits running at very high frequencie
s have one big problem to tackle - the problem of delays in propagation of signa
ls through gates and wires ... even for areas a few micrometers across! The oper
ation speed is so large that as the delays add up, they can actually become comp
arable to the clock speeds.
2. Power. Another effect of high operation frequencies is increased consumpti
on of power. This has two-fold effect - devices consume batteries faster, and he
at dissipation increases. Coupled with the fact that surface areas have decrease
d, heat poses a major threat to the stability of the circuit itself.
3. Layout. Laying out the circuit components is task common to all branches o
f electronics. What's so special in our case is that there are many possible way
s to do this; there can be multiple layers of different materials on the same si
licon, there can be different arrangements of the smaller parts for the same com
ponent and so on.
The power dissipation and speed in a circuit present a trade-off; if we try to o
ptimize on one, the other is affected. The choice between the two is determined
by the way we chose the layout the circuit components. Layout can also affect th
e fabrication of VLSI chips, making it either easy or difficult to implement the
components on the silicon.

THE VLSI DESIGN PROCESS :

A typical digital design flow is as follows:
* Specification
* Architecture
* RTL Coding
* RTL Verification
* Synthesis
* Backend
* Tape Out to Foundry to get end product..a wafer with repeated number of id
entical Ics.

All modern digital designs start with a designer writing a hardware description
of the IC (using HDL or Hardware Description Language) in Verilog/VHDL. A Verilo
g or VHDL program essentially describes the hardware (logic gates, Flip-Flops, c
ounters etc) and the interconnect of the circuit blocks and the functionality. V
arious CAD tools are available to synthesize a circuit based on the HDL.
Without going into details, we can say that the VHDL, can be called as the "C" o
f the VLSI industry. VHDL stands for "VHSIC Hardware Definition Language", where
VHSIC stands for "Very High Speed Integrated Circuit". This languages is used t
o design the circuits at a high-level, in two ways. It can either be a behaviora
l description, which describes what the circuit is supposed to do, or a structur
al description, which describes what the circuit is made of. There are other lan
guages for describing circuits, such as Verilog, which work in a similar fashion
.
Both forms of description are then used to generate a very low-level description
that actually spells out how all these are to be fabricated on the silicon chip
s. This will result in the manufacture of the intended IC.
A typical analog design flow is as follows:
In case of analog design, the flow changes somewhat.
*
Specifications
*
Architecture
*
Circuit Design
*
Simulation
*
Layout
*
Parametric Extraction / Back Annotation
 *
Final Design
*
Tape Out to foundry.

While digital design is highly automated now, very small portion of analog desig
n can be automated. There is a hardware description language called AHDL but is
not widely used as it does not accurately give us the behavioral model of the ci
rcuit because of the complexity of the effects of parasitic on the analog behavi
or of the circuit. Many analog chips are what are termed as "flat" or non-hierar
chical designs. This is true for small transistor count chips such as an operati
onal amplifier, or a filter or a power management chip. For more complex analog
chips such as data converters, the design is done at a transistor level, buildin
g up to a cell level, then a block level and then integrated at a chip level. No
t many CAD tools are available for analog design even today and thus analog desi
gn remains a difficult art.

MOST OF TODAY'S VLSI DESIGNS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE CATEGORIES:

1. Analog: Small transistor count precision circuits such as Amplifiers, Data
converters, filters, Phase Locked Loops, Sensors etc.

2. ASICS or Application Specific Integrated Circuits: Progress in the fabrica

tion of IC's has enabled us to create fast and powerful circuits in smaller and
smaller devices. This also means that we can pack a lot more of functionality in
to the same area. The biggest application of this ability is found in the design
of ASIC's. These are IC's that are created for specific purposes - each device
is created to do a particular job, and do it well. The most common application a
rea for this is DSP - signal filters, image compression, etc. To go to extremes,
consider the fact that the digital wristwatch normally consists of a single IC
doing all the time-keeping jobs as well as extra features like games, calendar,
etc.

3. SoC or Systems on a chip: These are highly complex mixed signal circuits (
digital and analog all on the same chip). A network processor chip or a wireless
radio chip is an example of an SoC.

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF VLSI

There are a number of directions a person can take in VLSI, and they are all clo
sely related to each other. Together, these developments are going to make possi
ble the visions of embedded systems and ubiquitous computing.
1. Reconfigurable computing: Reconfigurable computing is a very interesting a
nd pretty recent development in microelectronics. It involves fabricating circui
ts that can be reprogrammed on the fly! And no, we are not talking about microco
ntrollers running with EEPROM inside. Reconfigurable computing involves speciall
y fabricated devices called FPGA's, that when programmed act just like normal el
ectronic circuits. They are so designed that by changing or "reprogramming" the
connections between numerous sub modules, the FPGA's can be made to behave like
any circuit we wish. This fantastic ability to create modifiable circuits again
opens up new possibilities in microelectronics. Consider for example, microproce
ssors, which are partly reconfigurable. We know that running complex programs ca
n benefit greatly if support was built into the hardware itself. We could have a
microprocessor that could optimize itself for every task that it tackled! Or th
en consider a system that is too big to implement on hardware that may be limite
d by cost, or other constraints. If we use a reconfigurable platform, we could d
esign the system so that parts of it are mapped onto the same hardware, at diffe
rent times. One could think of many such applications, not the least of which is
prototyping - using an FPGA to try out a new design before it is actually fabri
cated. This can drastically reduce development cycles, and also save some money
that would have been spent in fabricating prototype IC's .
2. Software Engineers taking over hardware design? ASIC's provide the path to
creating miniature devices that can do a lot of diverse functions. But with the
impending boom in this kind of technology, what we need is a large number of pe
ople who can design these IC's. This is where we realize that we cross the thres
hold between a chip designer and a systems designer at a higher level. Does a pe
rson designing a chip really need to know every minute detail of the IC manufact
uring process? Can there be tools that allow a designer to simply create design
specifications that get translated into hardware specifications? The solution to
this is rather simple - hardware compilers or silicon compilers as they are cal
led. We know by now, that there exist languages like VHDL which can be used to s
pecify the design of a chip. What if we had a compiler that converts a high leve
l language into a VHDL specification? The potential of this technology is tremen
dous - in simple manner, we can convert all the software programmers into hardwa
re designers!
3. The need for hardware compilers: Before we go further let us look at why w
e need this kind of technology, that can convert high-level languages into hardw
are definitions. We see a set of needs, which actually lead from one to the othe
r in a series.
1. Rapid development cycles. The traditional method of designing hardwa
re is a long and winding process, going through many stages with special effort
spent in design verification at every stage. This means that the time from drawi
ng board to market is very long. This proves to be rather undesirable in case of
large expanding market, with many competitors trying to grab a share. We need a
lternatives to cut down on this time so that new ideas reach the market faster,
where the first person to get in normally gains a large advantage.
2. Large number of designers. With embedded systems becoming more and m
ore popular, there is a need for a large number of chip designers, who can churn
out chips designed for specific applications. It's impractical to think of trai
ning so many people in the intricacies of VLSI design.
3. Specialized training. A person who wishes to design ASIC's will requ
ire extensive training in the field of VLSI design. But we cannot possibly expec
t to find a large number of people who would wish to undergo such training. Also
, the process of training these people will itself entail large investments in t
ime and money. This means there has to be system which can abstract out all the
details of VLSI, and which allows the user to think in simple system-level terms
. There are quite a few tools available for using high-level languages in circui
t design. But this area has started showing fruits only recently. For example, t
here is a language called Handel-C, that looks just like good old C. But it has
some special extensions that make it usable for defining circuits. A program wri
tten in Handel-C, can be represented block-by-block by hardware equivalents. And
in doing all this, the compiler takes care of all low-level issues like clock-f
requency, layout, etc. The biggest selling point is that the user does not reall
y have to learn anything new, except for the few extensions made to C, so that i
t may be conveniently used for circuit design. Another quite different language,
that is still under development, is Lava. This is based on an esoteric branch o
f computer science, called "functional programming". FP itself is pretty old, an
d is radically different from the normal way we write programs. This is because
it assumes parallel execution as a part of its structure - its not based on the
normal idea of "sequence of instructions". This parallel nature is something ver
y suitable for hardware since the logic circuits are is inherently parallel in n
ature. Preliminary studies have shown that Lava can actually create better circu
its than VHDL itself, since it affords a high-level view of the system, without
losing sight of low-level features.

WHAT SORTS OF JOBS DOES AN ELECTRONICS ENGINEER DO?

As mentioned above, the main job functions in this industry are Design, Product,
Test, Applications and Process Engineering. For the sake of clarity, product en
gineering and test engineering functions are described separately, but it is mos
t efficient to combine these two functions into one engineer because of the inte
rdependency and overlap of skills, tasks and job functions.
1. Design Engineer: Takes specifications, defines architecture, does circuit
design, runs simulations, supervises layout, tapes out the chip to the foundry,
evaluates the prototype once the chip comes back from the fab.
2. Product Engineer: Gets involved in the project during the design phase, en
sures manufacturability, develops characterization plan, assembly guidelines, de
velops quality and reliability plan, evaluates the chip with the design engineer
, evaluates the chip through characterization, reliability qualification and man
ufacturing yield point of view (statistical data analysis). He is responsible fo
r production release and is therefore regarded as a team leader on the project.
Post production, he is responsible for customer returns, failure analysis, and c
orrective actions including design changes.
3. Test Engineer: Develops test plan for the chip based on specifications and
data sheet, creates characterization and production program for the bench test
or the ATE (Automatic Test Equipment), designs test board hardware, correlates A
TE results with the bench results to validate silicon to compare with simulation
results. He works closely with the product engineer to ensure smooth release to
production and post release support.
4. Applications Engineer: Defines new products from system point of view at t
he customer's end, based on marketing input. His mission is to ensure the chip w
orks in the system designed or used by the customers, and complies with appropri
ate standards (such as Ethernet, SONET, WiFi etc.). He is responsible for all cu
stomer technical support, firmware development, evaluation boards, data sheets a
nd all product documentation such as application notes, trade shows, magazine ar
ticles, evaluation reports, software drives and so on.
5. Process Engineer: This is a highly specialized function which involves new
wafer process development, device modeling, and lots of research and developmen
t projects. There are no quick rewards on this job! If you are R&D oriented, hig
hly trained in semiconductor device physics area, do not mind wearing bunny suit
s (the clean room uniforms used in all fabs), willing to experiment, this job is
for you.
6. Packaging Engineer: This is another highly specialized job function. He de
velops precision packaging technology, new package designs for the chips, does t
he characterization of new packages, and does electrical modeling of the new des
igns.
 7. CAD Engineer: This is an engineering function that supports the design eng
ineering function. He is responsible for acquiring, maintaining or developing al
l CAD tools used by a design engineer. Most companies buy commercially available
CAD tools for schematic capture, simulation, synthesis, test vector generation,
layout, parametric extraction, power estimation, and timing closure; but in sev
eral cases, these tools need some type of customization. A CAD engineer needs to
be highly skilled in the use of these tools, be able to write software routines
to automate as many functions as possible and have a clear understanding of the
entire design flow.
WHO CAN ENTER THIS FIELD AND HOW?
Those of us, who are already enjoying the brainteasers in designing and testing
The Chips, find it very rewarding. Not just from intellectual point of view but
also from the "pocket" point of view. When these two views converge, it creates
an engineer's paradise. Who wouldn't like best of both worlds? With all the inno
vation and rapid development, this field has virtually unlimited scope to grow.
This is all fine, but it raises a million questions. To state a few; How does on
e get a foot in the door in this field? When do you start thinking about choosin
g this branch? What does it take? Where do you get the training? What sort of jo
bs are available and where? How much does it really pay as an engineer and what
are the growth prospects for a fresh entrant? Does he choose a technical career
path or a management path? This is an attempt to guide you on the right path whe
n you are about make an important choice in your career. The idea is to give you
a flavor of what to look for, and not to intimidate you with technical jargon (
not yet anyway!) and information overload.
First of all, let's make it clear that it is not mandatory to have a BE in Elect
ronics to work in this field. It certainly is the obvious degree to earn, but qu
ality graduate and post-graduate degree in Physics also qualifies one to work as
an engineer. The Physics of Semiconductor Devices is the fundamental basis of V
LSI. We will see how the choice of various curricula shapes up the job scene, bu
t for now, let's concentrate on the initials.
HOW TO SPECIALIZE IN THIS FIELD?
After acquiring basic required degree in Electronics Engineering or allied Branc
hes one can choose specialization in this field. Sandeepani's PG-Diploma in VLSI
mould a fresh engineering graduate into a professional.

AFTER ALL THIS EDUCATION AND YEARS OF HARD WORK, IS THE MONEY WORTH IT? Well, t
hat really is a matter of personal choice. For those who want to be ambitious en
gineers, let us level the field of expectations! A fresh college graduate with p
rofessional course in VLSI Design entering the VLSI field can expect a starting
salary in the range of $45,000 to $55,000 per year. In India, the range is Rs. 2
.4 lakhs upwards per year depending on the company, the need and the skill level
demonstrated. Design engineers are the most sought after because of the industr
y's emphasis on continuous new product development, miniaturization and innovati
on in integration. Typically, a graduate with a Master's degree can expect about
10% higher than the one with a Bachelor's and someone with a Ph.D. can expect a
wide range. As you gain the experience, this field offers one of the best growt
hs potential, both on the technical as well as management ladder. Salary surveys
can be found on-line at www.ieee.org
WHAT ARE THE TYPICAL COMPANIES I CAN SEARCH FOR ON THE WEB TO GET MORE INFORMATI
ON ON VLSI TECHNOLOGY AND JOBS?
Intel, IBM, Texas Instruments, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Maxim, Linear T
echnology, Siemens, Qualcomm and CG-CoreEL are some of the names just to mention
a few. All have impressive websites and loads of information.