58 Cross Cultural Management

The Cultural Impact of Globalisation:

Economic Activity and Social Change
Nader Asgary and Alf H. Walle

The Authors
Nader Asgary,Associate Professor, Director of Center for International Business,
State University of New York - Geneseo, Geneseo, NY 14454, USA and Alf H.
Walle, School of Management, University of Alaska at Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Ala-
ska 99775, USA

Introduction

In a variety of ways, economic activities exert a powerful catalytic force, often

called “globalisation” in order to refer to Western culture impacting the rest of the
earth in ways that lead to greater worldwide cultural homogeneity. In reality, of
course, the East has the rich history, which influences the West, just as the West
transforms the East; thus, it is commonplace to buy cheap Chinese food, served up
in a Styrofoam container, instead of eating a Big Mac. Nonetheless, the monolith
of McDonalds proliferating internationally, not an array of small Chinese restau-
rants scattered throughout the United States, has emerged as the darling of mar-
keting and management thought.

Anecdotes abound about the impact of international marketing schemes, such

as the time when a Taiwan little league baseball team, playing in Pennsylvania
looked with nostalgia at the McDonalds golden arches as a symbol of home (Hol-
ton, 2000:142). When McDonalds opened Russian franchises a few years ago, fur-
thermore, there was much “hullabaloo” about globalisation and the great victories
it was winning for Western capitalism. “Total quality management” and the “mar-
keting concept” emphasise revolving organisations around pleasing customers; the
process of globalisation, it is often asserted, makes this job easier since people
throughout the world, seemingly “bitten by the global bug,” routinely embrace
similar tastes, desires, expectations, and demands.

The field of international management owes a great debt to cultural anthro-

pology, a field that focuses upon cultural distinctiveness. Perhaps the classic ex-
ample of an anthropologist crossing over to the area of international business is
Edward T. Hall whose article “The Silent Language in International Business”
(1960) is a classic in building strategies of cross-cultural collaboration. Nonethe-
less, the field is still in the early stage of intellectual development (Adler, 1983;
Kyi, 1988; Black and Mendenhall, 1990). Many authors (i.e. Newman and Nollen,
1996; Adler and Jelinkek, 1986; Black and Porter, 1991; Hofstede, 1994; Laurent,
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 59

1983, 1986; Triandis, 1989, 1990), following the lead of Hall, have concluded
that what works best in the West may not inevitably be effective cross-culturally.
In spite of the current popularity of homogeneous global strategies that centre
upon standardising products and employing Western management theories, the
recognition of cultural distinctiveness should not be ignored; those who do so, act
at their own risk.

According to those who embrace the paradigm of cultural distinctiveness,

each culture has its own sense of beauty that has been developed through history
and is composed of attitudes, values, and related behaviours (Ball and McCulloch,
1996). Cultures and nations largely function through basic structures such as the
family, local groups, circumscribed traditions, etc. As a result, organisational
structures (and their functioning) are impacted by distinctive cultural traditions
(e.g. Hofstede, 1980). The cultural emphasis upon individualism that is so preva-
lent in America, for example, is often not effective in the more collectively ori-
ented East (as any number of “insider studies” of Japan emphasise). The local
culture and its ethos can significantly impact the effectiveness of managerial prac-
tices and how they should be employed.

Researchers and practitioners have long pondered the premise that the specif-
ics of the cultural tradition dictates what motivates employees and that people
typically do not act in a universal kind of way that responds to some sort of gener-
alised and rational cost-benefit analysis (i.e. Bigoness and Blakely, 1996). To
whatever extent this is true, management strategies need to be linked to subtle
cultural understanding.

In addition, various thinkers have come to emphasise that a person’s culture

is a very powerful phenomenon that has the ability to help people in times of
stress. Thus, applied anthropologist G.N. Appell forcefully acknowledges: “A soci-
ety undergoing change...[such as that wrought by international business] has a
right to its cultural traditions, its language, and its social history.” A main benefit
of cultural traditions, Appell continues, is that they help people cope with the
trauma of change and they can provide a degree of stability that facilitates adapta-
tion (1977). This observation, of course, does not imply that modern Western
ways should be denied people:

Proposing... efforts...to stem inevitable change would be pointless...It

is possible, however, to temper change so that it proceeds in
accordance with the will of the people, and not in response to faddish
trends [such as global theory] (Loomis, 1983:29).

Continuing this chain of thought, Walle has drawn a distinction between the
macro and the micro environment and discussed strategies of international inter-
vention accordingly. Thus discussing marketing he observes:
60 Cross Cultural Management

Marketing, like any other social activity, must be managed. Doing so

does not undercut a people’s self-determinism but ensures that
marketing efforts do not give rise to unanticipated side effects...While
micromarketing concentrates almost entirely upon the tactics of
specific organisations macromarketing has always been primarily
dedicated to the broader ramifications of marketing activities and
how such behaviour impacts the larger world. Such analysis is
particularly useful when unmitigated micromarketing creates of
legacy of unanticipated costs which must be borne in an inequitable
fashion by some specific groups of people (Walle, 1986:65-6).
These are often issues that need to be considered and areas of thought that bene-
fit from focusing upon the distinctiveness of the specific cultural tradition.

In recent years, unfortunately, the term “globalisation” has been used in so

many contexts that it has lost the precise meaning it once might have had and, as
a result, discussions regarding globalisation can become confusing. Allen
Greenspan in the symposium on global economic integration defined globalisation
as “the increasing interaction of national economic system.” (2000:xviii). In order
to overcome this imprecision, we will examine various theories regarding globali-
sation. In doing so, the concepts of homogenisation, polarisation, and hybridisa-
tion are discussed.

Homogenisation

As far back as the early 1980s, marketing guru Theodore Levitt (1983, 1983a)
used the term globalisation to depict an emerging cultural homogeneity caused by
increased communication, technological convergence, and their impact upon mar-
keting. Beyond merely stating that a new process of cultural diffusion was pro-
foundly transforming the world, Levitt proposed a strategic response to this
phenomenon that emphasises standardising the products offered by the firm. In a
world where cultures are converging, Levitt reasoned, organisations can be most
effective if they provide a limited variety of products and then force them upon
the global market in strategic ways. And because technology and social contact
are making cultures increasingly homogeneous, Levitt reasoned, selling homoge-
neous products is emerging as the optimum strategy for businesses to follow (as
well as being the wave of the future).

Future success, Levitt asserted, will result from lower prices created through
the economies of scale made possible when virtually identical products are sold
worldwide and promoted in parallel ways that gain the benefits of synergism. Le-
vitt continued by suggesting that firms that respond to narrow regional and na-
tional differences, in contrast, will be left in the dust, lose their competitive edge,
and be supplanted by those who use standardisation to achieve economies of scale
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 61

and, thereby, most effectively respond to the emerging global marketplace. Some
writers call for more flexible strategies that tailor global strategies to the actual
circumstances faced (i.e. Quelch and Hoff observe, 1986).2

Nonetheless, views of globalisation that emphasise homogeneity and stan-

dardisation are seductive because they call for centralised control by the organisa-
tion’s leadership, laud the benefits of economies of scale, and anticipate the
international brand loyalty that is predicted to result from unified promotional
campaigns coordinated on a global scale.

Today, this “cultural homogeneity version” of global theory has often been
dubbed “McDonaldisation”: a term that implies that the popular consumer culture
of the economically dominant West is relentlessly and inevitably transforming
other, regions, cultures, nations, and societies (be they part of the developed or
developing worlds). Such perspectives imply that technological change, the mass
media, and consumer-oriented marketing campaigns work in tandem to remake
whatever they touch in their own image. Besides consumption patterns, some ob-
servers suggest that even attitudes and ideas about society, religion, and technol-
ogy are transformed by cultural diffusion brought by globalisation (Tomlinson,
1999:89). This perspective is reinforced and provided with a theoretical backbone
by models of economic determinism, such as the “cultural materialism” model of
Marvin Harris, that are increasingly influencing business theory and practice
(Walle, 2001, Chapter 3).

At least four major contributing factors to homogenisation can be identified;

they include the global transformation of local culture, the emergence of a con-
sumer mentality, the impact of elite culture, and the influence of the internet.
Each will be discussed.

The Global Transformation of Local Culture

As a result of mass marketing and the tendency for global firms to standardise
their products, organisations such as Coca-Cola, McDonalds, Nike, MTV, and Cal-
vin Klein have emerged as global icons (Holton, 142). According to the strategies
anticipated by Theodore Levitt (discussed above), mass marketing, on an interna-
tional level, displaces strategies that revolve around national, regional, and cul-
tural differences. Distinctiveness fades to the point where young Japanese tourists
in America have marvelled, upon visiting a McDonalds, “that America also has
Japanese food” (Watson, 131).

Even though various firms have successfully planted themselves globally,

however, their products continue to be consumed by different people in distinct
ways. The key point to remember is that although the products or services being
sold internationally may be “uniform” or “homogeneous” in outward appearance,
they can still be very different in the eyes of various customers and in the way in
which they are consumed.
62 Cross Cultural Management

While in America, McDonalds represents fast, cheap and convenient food

while this is not true worldwide. Going to McDonalds in Argentina and China, as
in Russia, involves a cultural experience, and, as in Russia, people pay high prices
for the American ambience of the visit (Walle, 1990). To the Chinese, it seems, a
tour of Beijing, is not complete until the sightseer has visited the Forbidden City,
strolled Tiananmen Square and eaten at McDonalds. Napkins, straws and packag-
ing are often taken home as souvenirs. Therefore, as a cultural force (or at least as
a popular cultural force), the United States exerts a powerful impact upon many
other countries and societies.3

A Consumer Mentality

A consumer mentality is often regarded as a by-product of homogenisation. Shop-

ping and spending have, in many circumstances, become ends in themselves. Mer-
chandising and commercial tie-ins abound and the public is constantly bombarded
accordingly. These activities are often profoundly important to the companies that
sponsor them: movie producers, for example, may earn a significant portion of
their profits from selling soundtrack CD albums, spinoffs, and other promotional
items. These licenses products, furthermore, generate public relations activities
that promote the film in addition to earning money in their own right. Sporting
events and specific teams, of course, also earn significant profits by licensing prod-
ucts that are themselves heavily marketed.4

The consumer is bombarded with an array of well-orchestrated messages and

products that encourage the consumption of products that often make a fashion
statement or convey a message in the process. The resulting consumer mentality
exerts a profound international impact upon marketing and economic activity.5
The global media can profoundly influence how people choose to spend their
spare time.6

Elite Culture

Homogenisation and globalisation tend to be the realm of the elite because in

many parts of the world they are the only people who are affluent enough to buy
many of the products available in the global marketplace. Highly educated, well-
travelled, and wealthy individuals from different backgrounds typically interact
within a Westernised milieu and they do so by choice. In addition, since the trap-
pings of Western culture are symbols of affluence and power, the elite often em-
braces Western styles of products and pattern of behaviour in order to impress
others and/or to maintain their image. Today, Western patterns of behaviour and
the English language are staples of international business. These conventions have
become universal and they are expected and demanded by the elite international
traveller and the international executive class (Tomlinson, 7).7 Profound impacts
result from this trend.
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 63

In such cases, global culture builds a familiar foundation that crosses national
borders. Beyond simply encouraging mass marketing, this international homoge-
neity can build unity among the world’s people or, at least, among the elite who
have significant discretionary income and/or are well connected. Building rapport
with colleagues and clients, of course, is the first step in establishing successful
business relationships. By embracing a universally acceptable arena for conduct-
ing business, different groups can most effectively communicate. The Western
style and the English language have emerged as the “lingua Franca” of the era and
they are embraced internationally by powerful and wealthy people.

The Internet

The Internet, although early in its life cycle, is making the world smaller and more
accessible. While international travel, although declining in price, tends to remain
in the realm of a privileged minority, computers are becoming available to an in-
creasing large percentage of the human race. As a result, diverse people are able
to communicate internationally as never before. These lines of communication
profoundly expand the speed with which cultural diffusion can take place; this
process can increase the level of cultural homogeneity shared by different people.
Certainly, the Internet and its impact upon the process of homogenisation are far
from reaching their peak. Although computers will never be available to all people
and even though the Internet does not permit people to fully experience other
places and lifestyles, it does allow greater access to more people and information
than has ever been possible in previous human history. As a result, computers and
the Internet provide an entry point into the global world and one that is available
to more and more people. Due to these trends, they emerge as a major engine of
the global revolution.

A New Enlightenment?

This process of homogenisation may seem to be irreversible due to the constant

bombardment of technological advances, cross-cultural contact, and the resulting
social change. With more disposable income worldwide and with technology and
digital information diffusing into the less developed areas of the world, cultural
homogeneity grows and the distinctiveness of specific cultures shrinks. The in-
creased interdependence of the world’s economies and the interconnectedness of
its communication networks encourage this trend and they show no sign of abat-
ing.

In many ways, the current impact of globalisation is analogous to the era of

the Enlightenment in the 18th century (see Walle, 2001, Chapters 1 and 2 for a
fuller discussion). The Enlightenment, of course, was a movement that was hinged
upon the advances of science, communication, and the modern world. The leaders
of the Enlightenment, like today’s globalisers, believed an inevitable trend to-
wards an emerging homogeneous cultural evolution existed and that it was des-
64 Cross Cultural Management

tined to unite all people. Those who embraced the Enlightenment clearly believed
that older traditions and those that were not based on science and reason could be
written off as vestigial remains that were doomed to oblivion as enlightened and
homogeneous ways of life came to dominate the world. In such circumstances, En-
lightenment visionaries predicted, traditional cultures would survive only in some
rather inconsequential hinterland pockets.

As we will argue, however, cultural homogenisation and global tendencies

are merely one factor that influences contemporary business strategies and cul-
tural evolution. The impact of a distinct cultural heritage, the influence of family,
religion, and the leadership provided by reference groups must also be consid-
ered. As a result, not only will distinctiveness remain, it has emerged as a badge of
honour among many people. We cannot let theories of globalisation and homog-
enisation blind us to these trends and the broader implications that they suggest.

Polarisation

Global interconnections and interdependence, of course, will not, in all cases, in-
evitably result in cultural conformity and homogenisation. The distinctive aspects
of a culture’s ethos and its traditions are harder to standardise than economic sys-
tems, technological convergence, and/or parallel marketing strategies. The cul-
tural consequences of globalisation are diverse, multifaceted, and complex. The
limits upon cultural homogenisation has often been recast in terms of an opposite
conceptualisation: polarisation (Holton, 145). Polarisation is represented by cul-
tural, regional, or national distinctiveness that flies in the face of an alleged homo-
geneity. At times this polarisation results in distinctive tastes among specific target
markets; on other occasion, enclaves of peoples lash out in defence of their tradi-
tions and way of life. While technological and economic convergence can encour-
age a more global and homogeneous world, on the one hand, distinctive segments
of the population with their own heritage, values, and habits seek to preserve
their unique character, on the other.

And the same technology that leads to homogeneity can also serve the forces
of polarisation. Dispersed ethnic groups, for example, have often used technology
to maintain their traditions: a phenomenon that Benedict Anderson calls “long
distance nationalism.” Because technology provides people with a means of keep-
ing in contact with cohorts and nurturing their cultural heritages, actual geo-
graphic location no longer significantly impairs, diminishes, or undermines a
distinctive identity (Holton, 145).8

While there are many examples of peaceful people preserving their traditions
is idyllic, various resistance movements that use violence or confrontation to bol-
ster indigeneous cultures and religions have a higher profile. This kind of forceful
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 65

reaction takes place in both the developing and the developed worlds. Below, we
will examine illustrative case studies that explore significant aspects of this polari-
sation.

Cultural and Religious Fundamentalism

A specific aspect of the homogenisation/polarisation dilemma lies in the fact that

many religions and cultures fiercely oppose being swallowed up by the Western
world; as a result, the tendency towards homogeneity is resisted and countered.
While many global theorists assert that cultural homogeneity is the inevitable
wave of the future, the loyal opposition of many cultures, societies, and religions
debate that premise and actively work to oppose such trends.

As applied to religious movements, the term “fundamentalism” had its origins

in North America in the early twentieth century, when it was used to depict spe-
cific Protestant groups who reacted against the “liberal Christianity” of the era.
These conservatives believed that worldly and scientifically oriented liberal Protes-
tant theology was diluting and undercutting their faith in hurtful and unaccept-
able ways (see Mardsen, 1991 for a discussion of this movement). Since that time,
the notion of fundamentalism has been applied to many traditional religions that
attempt to get back to their basic, fundamental essences (Hallencreutz and West-
erlund, 1966). These movements typically oppose the influences of the secular,
scientific and (in some cases) the Western world. In such a context, the term “fun-
damentalism” has been applied to a wide range of conservative religous move-
ments. This type of response is often embraced by the traditional cultures of the
non-Western, developing world.

Thus, as the homogenising process of globalisation has cast its shadow, a

wide range of conservative groups including American Protestants, Jewish settlers
in Israel, and Muslim activists among others, has opposed it. The resulting funda-
mentalism has caused these groups, each in its own way, to clash against the arti-
facts, mores, and attitudes of the modern age and/or the Western world
(Lawrence, 1990). Although American fundamentalists are a part of the dominant
West while various other groups, such as Muslim fundamentalists, are members of
developing countries, they possess striking similarities (Hallencreutz and Wester-
lund, 1996). Muslim fundamentalism, of course, is a classic example of this ten-
dency, but hardly the only one.

Clearly people can simultaneously be a part of their local, circumscribed soci-

ety and the larger, national or international community. This tendency is a recur-
ring and familiar pattern to those who interact within traditional cultures; many
carriers of indigenous culture have a broad-based background and they are able to
interact equally well both within a Westerner/developed setting and their own cir-
cumscribed communities. Traditions do not necessarily wilt and die when exposed
66 Cross Cultural Management

to the modern world.9 Important implications regarding this dual status and the
specific character of polarisation exist.

First, just because hinterland cultures and lifestyles are impacted by the
larger world does not inevitably indicate that these traditions are doomed to ex-
tinction. Indeed, they may be able to survive and thrive both within the educated
minority and among the less educated who, since they have minimal contact with
the outside world, are not significantly transformed by it.

Secondly, the global, outside world and hinterland traditions tend to be em-
braced by people at different times in their lives. In youth, for example, many peo-
ple are in an adventurous and innovative frame of mind and, as such, they tend to
embrace the more dominant mainstream/global culture. As time goes on, how-
ever, many of these same people tend to reconnect with their traditions (Walle,
1995).

It is worthwhile to note that the empirical pattern of observable behaviour

can make it appear as if these traditions are dying off and/or are vestigial re-
mains; after all, the young tend to act globally while the old are primarily the
ones who embrace the norms of their heritage. Making this observation, it is easy
to falsely conclude that these traditions are exclusively the province of old people
and speculate that when the current generation goes to its grave, their traditions
will die with it. In reality, this is often not the case; 20 years later, these traditions
are likely to continue to be alive and well, being carried on by the current senior
citizens, who, in an earlier era of their lives, while covert carriers of tradition were
embracing global and mainstream responses (Walle, 1995).

Romantic Nationalism as Polarisation: A Concluding Statement

When discussing the homogeneous theory of globalisation, we compared it to the

age of the Enlightenment: an era that pointed to rational thought and science as
relentless forces destined to remake the world in their image. Our observation was
that the modern emphasis upon the homogenising implications of globalisation
closely parallels the logic of that 18th century intellectual and political movement.

Each action, of course, tends to have its equal and opposite reaction. And in
this case, the equal and opposite reaction to the Enlightenment is the Romantic
Movement (for fuller discussions of the following analysis see Walle, 2001, Chap-
ter 2). While the Enlightenment centred upon logic and rationality, Romanticism
focused upon emotions and the distinctiveness of specific peoples. And to a great
degree, the Romantic vision centred upon the emotional content of cultures and
traditions. The theoretical underpinnings of Romanticism were laid by Johann
Herder, a German philosopher who helped to popularise the concept of “volks-
geist,” a construct that coincides, more or less, with the more contemporary term
“national character.” Herder believed that all peoples and nations possess a
unique volksgeist/national character and that they need to be envisioned and in-
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 67

terpreted accordingly. In the 19th century, Frederick Hegel picked up the concept
of volksgeist and made it an integral part of his emphasis upon the social group as
the basis of life.

The Romantic era, furthermore, was a period in which diverse cultural tradi-
tions within Europe were struggling to free themselves from the yoke of alien cul-
tures that had long dominated them. Throughout Europe, the emotionally laden
and politically pregnant theories of Romanticism were integrated with the concept
of national character provided by Herder and Hegel. The result was a champion-
ing of the local cultural tradition above all else and a repudiation of the homoge-
neity largely created by the intrusion of alien cultures and oppressive regimes.
Contemporary Muslim fundamentalism and these 19th century nationalistic move-
ment of Europe are clearly akin to each other and they are both classic examples
of polarisation.

In the final analysis, the concept of polarisation, as used to interpret acts

ranging from the Iranian revolution, to 19th century cultural renaissance in
Europe, to East Kentuckians embracing their traditions are case in the mould of
Romantic nationalism. By keeping this in mind and by remembering the wealth of
examples provided by the Romantic era, we can better perceive the process by
which people seek to preserve their traditions and cultures in the face of massive
affronts from powerful outside forces. Just as homogeneity reflects the traditions
of the Enlightenment, polarisation mirrors Romantic nationalism.

Hybridisation and Dialectics

The theory of hybridisation argues that globalisation has not created a world that
is accurately depicted by either homogeneity or polarisation. It suggests that each
of these constructs, while possessing a kernel of truth, is over-zealous to the point
of error. To illustrate this point and to enter the discussion of hybridisation (by
which we mean adjustment, on the one hand, while maintaining an identity, on
the other) consider the following case study provided by Ulf Hannerz:

Each year the countries of Europe meet in a televised song

contest...watched by hundred of millions of people. There is first a
national contest in each country to choose its own entry for the
international competition. A few years ago a controversy erupted in
Sweden after this national contest. It was quite acceptable that
the...first runner up was performed by a lady from Finland, and the
second runner up by an Afro-American lady...Both were thought of
as representing the heterogeneity of Swedish society... What was
controversial was the winning tune, the refrain of which was “Four
Buggs and a Coca-Cola”: Bugg...was a brand name for chewing
gum...Of the two Coca-Cola was much more controversial, as it was
68 Cross Cultural Management

widely understood as a symbol of cultural imperialism...what drew

far less attention was that the winning tune was a Calypso (Holton,
148).
Another good example is the fact that in Europe the majority of teenagers
want to wear American jeans, listen to English and Latino music, eat American,
Arabic and French food while maintaining a nationalistic viewpoint. Such exam-
ples document the value of the theory of hybridisation that deals with relevant as-
pects of both polarisation and homogenisation. While certain traditions from
foreign cultures such as Calypso music (a style of music created in the Caribbean
regions) were welcomed in Sweden, other alien traditions/products, such as
Coca-Cola were despised and rejected. Such disparity demonstrates how Sweden,
while preoccupied with maintaining its distinctive cultural traditions, is also will-
ing to accept the fruits of other cultures as long as they do not seriously challenge
the status quo. Acceptance seems to be particularly forthcoming in the case of
weaker traditions, such as Calypso music, that are not viewed as a threat to the
Swedish way of life.

The dialectical method of Frederick Hegel’s provides a useful way of model-

ling this process. Using the thesis/antithesis/synthesis paradigm, Hegel depicted
the initial status quo situation as the “thesis.” For our purposes, this can be envi-
sioned in terms of the culture before contact with the outside world (or an outside
agent, such as a business organisation). This thesis is then impacted by what He-
gel calls the “antithesis”: some alternative or disruption that conflicts with the
status quo. For our purposes, this is represented by disruptive outside contact
(such as products being sold or cultural traditions being introduced). Ultimately,
the thesis and the antithesis interact in a way that leads to what Hegel calls the
“synthesis” which represents a reconciliation of the two. This synthesis, in turn,
emerges as a new thesis and the process begins all over again in an ongoing cycle.
This process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, of course, closely parallels the pro-
cess of hybridisation that we have been describing.

Not only does this formulation “fit” the examples that we are examining, the
dialectical method is well known and it has generated a long and respectable re-
search stream. By hybridisation, we are referring to a new combination of cultural
traits, attitudes, responses, etc. that are based upon a fusing and an adjusting of
somewhat different or conflicting systems. Hegel’s dialectical model is a useful
method that has a valuable role in describing and analysing this process.

A benefit of the dialectical approach is that it provides a theory and a testable

hypothesis that can easily be applied to a wide range of situations involving inter-
national business. In general, this hypothesis suggests that the status quo is im-
pacted by outside forces and that both are transformed in the process. The model
also provides a means of envisioning the new situation that arises as well as con-
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 69

ceptualising it as part of a continual and ongoing process. This is exactly the kind
of models that are needed by both scholars and practitioners involved in interna-
tional business.

Conclusion

Today, international business is growing and global strategies are being employed
as never before in modern times. Unfortunately, even though global themes have
become ubiquitous, speaking about them in precise terms can be difficult. This ar-
ticle has addressed that issue by discussing three implications of globalisation: the
tendencies towards homogeneity, polarisation, and hybridisation. As businesses
expand worldwide and the search for new markets intensifies, hitherto isolated
cultures and nations are increasingly drawn into the Western sphere of economic
and cultural influence. Certainly, these societies will borrow heavily from those
with whom they come into contact. But this does not inevitably imply that they
will be completely transformed.

There was a time when humanists tended to assume (as today’s homogenises
do) that older, circumscribed cultural traditions would inevitably fade and be sup-
planted by the modern world. In earlier generations, for example, folklorists vis-
ited hinterland enclaves in order to “salvage” cultural traditions because they
believed the cultural heritage they were studying was rapidly and inevitably dying
off as the modern world established itself within the hinterland.

Today, in contrast, humanists typically emphasise that traditions often sur-

vive by adapting to new conditions. Many individuals, for example, are both mem-
bers of their traditional culture and citizens of their nation or the world. The issue
is not one of the survival vs. the demise of local traditions, but how people em-
brace life in a way that is typified by cultural hybridisation.

The hybridisation model, although complex, provides a useful perspective re-

garding cultural change and its impact upon consumption. Certainly we live in a
global age in which changes wrought by technology and business operate in tan-
dem. On the one hand, these changes can create a more homogeneous world and
one in which diverse people respond in parallel ways to the circumstances pro-
vided by global business. On the other hand, many people, disturbed by the threat
of cultural genocide, react against homogeneous responses by asserting and cele-
brating their distinctiveness. Concentrating on either response results in a one-
sided and circumscribed vision. By combining them via the concept of hybridisa-
tion, a more robust framework can be embraced; we advocate such an eclectic
perspective.

Frederick Hegel’s dialectical method provides a useful way of simplifying the

way in which we perceive and analyse this process of hybridisation. As such, it can
serve a valuable role as business researchers grapple with the tensions of homoge-
neity vs. polarisation. It can also help us to appropriately envision markets and it
70 Cross Cultural Management

suggests ways in which to most effectively respond to consumer needs and de-
mands. Both the forces of homogeneity and polarisation exist and they tend to
connect in ways that replicate Hegel’s thesis, antithesis, and synthesis model.
Thus, the dialectical method provides an invaluable model of this process. It also
provides a means of posing testable and debatable hypotheses regarding cul-
tural/commercial contact and the resulting hybridisation that springs from it.

We live in a world in which converging technologies, distinctive ways of life,

and diverse belief systems create a complex “global stew.” This is a complicated
and fluid situation for which no “pat” and standardised answers exist. We are well
advised to remember that fact. By modelling this process of hybridisation in terms
of the dialectical method, a well respected and directly relevant means of dealing
with such phenomena can be embraced.
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 71

Endnotes

1. Authors are listed in alphabetical order to indicate equal participation. We

would like to acknowledge the contribution of Helen Ho, Alexander Houghtaling,
and Matthew Zawisky.

2. Quelch and Hoff observe: Too often executives view global marketing as an ei-
ther/or proposition - either full standardised or local control. But when a global
approach can fall anywhere on a spectrum from tight worldwide coordination... to
loose agreement on a product idea, why the extreme view? In applying the global
marketing concept and making it work, flexibility is essential (1986:59).

3. Media giants such as Time Warner and MTV, embrace the global strategy and
in a way that parallels McDonalds, they adopt slogans such as “The World is Our
Audience” and “One Planet, One Music” (Street, 1997:79). Due to the universal
embrace of its popular culture clothing styles, music, and food, the impact of the
United States upon the rest of the world has been particularly strong.

4. As Tomlinson observes: McWorld is an entertainment shopping experience that

brings together malls, multiplex movie theatres, theme parks, spectator sports are-
nas, fast-food chains and television (with its burgeoning shopping networks) into
a single vast enterprise that, on the way to maximising its profits, transforms hu-
man beings (Tomlinson, 1999:87).

5. Even leisure activities and tourism are affected by such trends. On the one
hand, many people will fly or drive long distances to large shopping malls or out-
let stores and they view their shopping spree as a holiday or as a recreational ac-
tivity (Tomlinson, 86).

6. For example, the role that motion picture “A River Runs Through It” played af-
ter it was released. The fly fishing was a recreational activity that was embraced
by a small market segment. After the film caught the public’s imagination, how-
ever, the popularity of the sport experienced a profound growth. Thus, a “commo-
dification” of fly fishing resulted from the mass media (in specific, from one
motion picture that caught the public’s imagination).

7. Also, Holton has observed: The experience of a Western education...not only

diffuses Western forms of knowledge but also helps to create interpersonal net-
works of value in the functioning of international organisations like the United
Nations, the World Bank...as well as global corporations (Holton, 143).

8. A specific example, with which we have firsthand knowledge, is the Hmong

who were allowed to immigrate to the United States after being cast out of their
Asian homeland. According to the typical policy of relocating such aliens, the
Hmong found themselves scattered far and wide throughout the United States.
Due to mass communication, Xerox machines, and the Internet, however, they
72 Cross Cultural Management

have been able to create sophisticated communication networks and, thereby,

more effectively preserve their identity. By keeping in contact with one another,
the Hmong are even able to exchange information about and patterns for the fa-
mous Hmong embroideries that are a highly saleable craft among these people.
Thus, although geographically dispersed, the Hmong are able to maintain their
cultural distinctiveness through long distance communication.

9. A particularly interesting example of this trend concerns the hinterland people

of Eastern Kentucky: Appalachian hill-people who possess a long and illustrious
cultural heritage (This section is based on Walle, 199x).
Volume 9 Number 3 2002 73

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