1

Chapter 1 Muscular System

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1 Connective Tissues
Connective tissue comprises a diverse group of specialized
cells and tissues. Connective tissues function in:
• Support
• Transport
• Storage
• Immune defense
Two major groupings of connective tissues are recognized:
• Connective tissue proper: includes loose and dense connec-
tive tissue (arranged in either an irregular or regular conforma-
tion)
• Specialized connective tissue: includes cartilage, bone, adi-
pose tissue (fat), hemopoietic tissue, blood and lymph
Connective tissue proper includes a variety of different cell
types and fibers enmeshed in a ground substance that compris-
es an extracellular matrix. Loose connective tissue is found
largely under epithelia lining both the body’s surface and its
internal organ systems. It often is the first line of defense
against infection. Dense connective tissue has many fibers but
few cells and includes tendons, ligaments, the submucosa and
reticular layers that offer support.
The fibrous elements in connective tissue include:
• Collagen fibers: numerous in connective tissues and offer
flexibility and strength
• Elastic fibers: interwoven fibers that offer flexibility and retain
their shape if stretched
• Reticular fibers: are thinner collagen fibers that provide
strength but are the least common of the fibrous elements
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Plate 6 See Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4th Edition, Plate 147.
The most common cellular elements in connective tissue
include:
1. Plasma cells: secrete immunoglobulins and are derived
from B lymphocytes
2. Macrophages: phagocytic cells (engulf pathogens and cell
debris) derived from monocytes in the blood
3. Lymphocytes: the principal cells of the immune system
4. Mast cells: respond early to immune challenges and
secrete powerful vasoactive and chemotactic substances
5. Adipocytes: store and release triglycerides as needed by
the body (fat cells), produce hormones and growth factors
6. Myofibroblasts: fibroblasts that are capable of contraction
and function similar to fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells
8. Fibroblasts: abundant cells that synthesize all the fibrous
elements and elaborate the matrix
7. Eosinophils: respond to allergens and parasitic infections,
and are phagocytes
9. Neutrophils: respond to injury and immune challenges, and
are capable of phagocytosis
COLOR each of the following major cell types found in
connective tissue proper, using a different color for each cell
type:
1. Plasma cell (note its eccentrically placed nucleus)
■
■ 2. Macrophage (note its large size and
irregular shape)
■ 3. Lymphocyte (note its small size, with the nucleus
taking up most of the cell volume)
■ 4. Mast cell (note its cytoplasm is filled with small
granules)
■ 5. Adipocyte (note its large size and small
eccentrically placed nucleus)
■ 6. Myofibroblast (note its elongated and branched
structure and thin nucleus)
■ 7. Eosinophil (note its cytoplasmic granules and
eccentric, bi-lobed nucleus)
■ 8. Fibroblast (note its thin or sometimes stellate
shape and thin, small, central nucleus)
■ 9. Neutrophil (note its multi-lobed nucleus)
Introduction
 Connective Tissues 1

Collagen
fibers Reticular
fibers
1
6
2 Blood
vessel

3 7

Ground
substance

Elastic 9
fibers

Connective tissue proper

5 8 Chrondrocytes

Adipose Tendon Cartilage

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Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 6
1 Skeleton

The human skeleton is divided into two descriptive regions:
• Axial skeleton: the bones of the skull, vertebral column (spine),
ribs and sternum (they form the “axis” or central line of the
body)
• Appendicular skeleton: the bones of the limbs, including the
pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdles (they comprise the upper
and lower limbs that attach to the axial skeleton)
COLOR the axial skeleton yellow to differentiate it from
the appendicular skeleton.
■ 1. Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton includes 80 bones:
• The skull and associated bones (auditory ossicles and hyoid
bone) account for 29 bones
• The thoracic cage (sternum and ribs) accounts for 25 bones
• The vertebral column accounts for 26 bones
The skeletal system is composed of a living, dynamic, rigid
connective tissue that forms the bones and cartilages of the
human skeleton. While we say the skeleton has 214 bones,
this number may actually vary somewhat. Cartilage is
attached to some bones, especially where flexibility is impo
tant and covers some of the articular (joint) surfaces of bones.
About 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bones and many
bones possess a central cavity that contains bone marrow,
collection of hemopoietic (blood-forming) cells. Most indivi
ual bones can be classified into one of 5 shapes:
• Long bones
• Short bones
• Flat bones
• Irregular bones
• Sesamoid bones
COLOR Color, using a different color for each shape, the
five different types of bones:

The appendicular skeleton includes 134 bones: ■ 2. Flat bone

• The pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula) accounts for 4 bones ■ 3. Irregular bone
• The upper limbs account for 64 bones
■ 4. Short bone
• The pelvic girdle (coxal or hip bone) accounts for 2 bones
• The lower limbs account for 64 bones ■ 5. Long bone

■ 6. Sesamoid bone
Tonsils
The tonsils include collections of lymphatic tissue in the oral
cavity (palatine tonsils, visible when you open your mouth and Functions of the skeletal system and bones include:
say "ahh"), lingual tonsils on the base of the tongue, pharyngeal • Support
• Protection of vital tissues or organs
tonsils (when enlarged and inflammed they are called "ade-
• Providing a mechanism, along with muscles, for movement
noids") in the roof of the nasopharynx, and tubal tonsils around
• Storing calcium
the opening of the auditory (eustachian) tube. Together, these • Providing a supply of blood cells
lymphatic aggregations form "Waldeyer's lymphatic ring." They
play an important immune role by protecting the nasal and oral
passages from invading pathogens, especially during childhood. Clinical Note:
Osteoporosis (porous bone) is the most common bone disease and results
Some of these tissues atrophy with advancing age and become from an imbalance in bone resorption and formation which places the bones
less important. a great risk for fracture. Approximately 10 million Americans (80% of them
women) have osteoporosis.
Each kidney is supplied by a large renal artery, which then
divides into the following branches:
Segmental arteries: one artery for each of about 5
segments
Interlobar arteries: several arise from each segmental artery
and course between the renal pyramids, ascending to the
cortex and arching over the base of each pyramid
Arcuate arteries: the arching terminal portions of the interlobar
arteries at the base of each renal pyramid
Interlobular arteries: arise from the arcuate arteries and ascend
into the renal cortex (90% of the blood flow to the kidney
perfuses the renal cortex)
Afferent arterioles: arise from the interlobular arteries and pass

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(one each) to the nephron's glomerulus to form the glomeru-
lar capillary tuft
Efferent arterioles: glomerular capillaries of the juxtamedullary

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nephrons reunite to form efferent arterioles that descend into
the medulla and form the vasa recta countercurrent.

Plate 7 See Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4th Edition, Plate 147. Introduction
 Skeleton 1

5
3

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Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 7
1 Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles

Three muscles (external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal

oblique, and transverses abdominis) wrap around the abdomi- COLOR these three labeled muscles using a different
nal wall and are direct continuations of the three muscle layers color for each. Work from the superficial to the deeper layer
found in the thoracic wall, where they lie between the ribs and
and note the direction of the muscle fibers as your color:
comprise the intercostal muscles.
The functions of these anterior abdominal muscles include: ■ 1. External abdominal oblique
• Compressing the abdominal wall and increase intra-abdominal ■ 2. Internal abdominal oblique
pressure, especially when lifting, and during urination, defeca- 3. Transversus abdominis
tion, and childbirth.
■
• Assisting the diaphragm during forced expiration (this occurs
unexpectedly when a blow is administered to the anterior
abdominal wall and the “wind is knocked out of you”).
• Helping flex and rotate the trunk
• Tensing the abdominal wall

MUSCLE PROXIMAL DISTAL ATTACHMENT INNERVATION MAIN ACTIONS

ATTACHMENT (ORIGIN) (INSERTION)
External oblique External surfaces of 5th to Linea alba, pubic tubercle, Inferior six thoracic nerves Compresses and supports
12th ribs and anterior half of iliac crest and subcostal nerve abdominal viscera; flexes
and rotates trunk

Internal oblique Thoracolumbar fascia, Inferior borders of 10th to Ventral rami of inferior six Compresses and supports
anterior two thirds of iliac 12th ribs, linea alba, and thoracic and first lumbar abdominal viscera; flexes
crest, and lateral half of pubis via conjoint tendon nerves and rotates trunk
inguinal ligament

Transversus abdominis Internal surfaces of 7-12 Linea alba with aponeurosis Ventral rami of inferior six Compresses and supports
costal cartilages, thoracolum- of internal oblique, pubic thoracic and first lumbar abdominal viscera
bar fascia, iliac crest, and lat- crest, and pecten pubis via nerves
eral third of inguinal ligament conjoint tendon

Rectus abdominis Pubic symphysis and pubic Xiphoid process and costal Ventral rami of inferior six Flexes trunk and compress-
crest cartilages 5-7 thoracic nerves es abdominal viscera

Two midline muscles (Rectus abdominis and Pyramidalis) lie

LAYER COMMENT
within the rectus sheath, a tendinous sheath composed of the
aponeurotic layers of the three abdominal muscles colored (1- Anterior lamina above arcuate line Formed by fused aponeuroses of
3). The layers (lamina) that compose the sheath are deficient external and internal abdominal
oblique muscles
below the arcuate line (in the lower quarter) of the rectus
sheath where only the transversalis fascia lies in contact with Posterior lamina above arcuate Formed by fused aponeuroses of
line internal abdominal oblique and
the rectus abdominis.
transversus abdominis muscles
Below arcuate line All three muscle aponeuroses fuse
COLOR the midline muscles of the anterior abdominal to form anterior lamina,with rectus
wall, using a different color from those used previously: abdominis in contact only with
transversalis fascia posteriorly
■ 4. Rectus abdominis (note the three tendinous intersections-the
*Stimulation of the center causes the responses listed.
infamous “six-pack” abs)

5. Pyramidalis Clinical Note:

■ Hernias, abnormal outpoutchings of underlying structures due to a weak-
ness of the wall, can occur on the anterior abdominal wall.
The most common types include:

COLOR the three muscle layers, as done initially (1-3)
and then using different color for each, color the aponeurosis
extending from the muscle to form the layers of the rectus
sheath (labeled 1A-3A to denote their relationship to the
muscles).
• Umbilical hernias – usually seen up to age 3 years or after the age of 40
• Linea alba hernias – often occur in the epigastric region along the
midline linea alba
• Incisional hernias – occur at sites of previous abdominal surgical scars
• Inguinal hernias – related to the inguinal canal in the inguinal region
(where abdomen and thigh meet)

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■ 1A. Aponeuroses of external oblique muscle
■ 2A. Aponeuroses of internal oblique muscle
■ 3A. Aponeuroses of transversus addominus muscle

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Plate 49 See Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4th Edition, Plate 147. Section Name
 Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles 1

Intercostal muscles

4
2a 2a
4 1

2 4
3 1a
3 Tendinuous
3a intersection
3a 4
1a
Linea alba
2
Rectus sheath
2
Inguinal ligament

5
Pubic tubercle
Conjoint tendon

1a 2a 3a Linea alba Rectus Sheath Cross-Section

4
Skin Above acuate line
1

3 Transversalis fascia Posterior layer of

4 rectus sheath

1a 2a 3a Skin
Below acuate line

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Transversalis fascia

Peritoneum
3
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Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 49