CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Any integrated system for the control and operation of a specific type of
weaponry. Weapons are usually divided into two categories, strategic and
tactical. Strategic weapons strike at the seat of an enemy's military, economic,
and political power, targeting cities, factories, military bases, transportation and
communications networks, and seats of government. Most nuclear weapons are
part of strategic weapons systems. Tactical weapons are designed instead for
offensive or defensive use at relatively short range—for example, guided
missiles intended as antiaircraft and antitank weapons, or other weapons used
.in aerial and naval combat

Thermo baric weapons distinguish themselves from conventional explosive

weapons by using atmospheric oxygen, instead of carrying an oxidizer in their
explosives. They are also called high-impulse thermo baric weapons (HITs),
fuel-air explosives (FAE or FAX) or sometimes fuel-air munitions, heat and
pressure weapons, or vacuum bombs. They produce more explosive energy for
a given size than do other conventional explosives, but have the disadvantage
.of being less predictable in their effect

1
 CHAPTER 2

Terminology

The term thermobaric is derived from the greek words for “heat” and
“pressure”. Conventional explosive weapons such as the Daisy Cutter
incorporate both fuel and oxidizer. In contrast, a Fuel-Air Explosive consists
only of fuel and a dispersing mechanism, using oxygen from the air as the
.oxidizer

The term "thermobaric" is derived from the effects of temperature (the Greek
word "therme" means "heat") and pressure (the Greek word "baros" means
"pressure") on the target. Thermobarics first disperse a flammable mist of
underoxidised fuel which ignites to create a gigantic explosion of immense
destructiveness. The explosion of the SMAW-NE is effective in three main
ways. Firstly, it is accompanied by a massive fireball which incinerates all in
its path. Secondly, it creates a massive pressure wave capable of rupturing the
internal organs of all those nearby and so powerful that it can reduce load-
bearing walls to rubble and bring down buildings. Finally, the explosion also
sucks all the oxygen out of the air, asphyxiating anyone in the immediate
.vicinity . Basically, if you’re in the building when it hits, it’ll kill you

2
 CHAPTER 3

Mechanism

The weapon consists of a container of either a volatile liquid or finely

powdered solid. The solid could be an explosive metal powder or reactive
.organic. A high explosive charge is placed in the middle of the fuel

The weapon is initiated upon dropping or firing, and the explosive charge (or
some other dispersal mechanism) bursts open the container and disperses the
.fuel in a cloud. The fuel then reacts with the atmospheric oxygen

3.1 weapon effect

Fuel-air explosives represent the military application of the vapor cloud

explosion and dust explosion accidents that have long bedeviled a variety of
industries. An accidental fuel-air explosion may occur as a result of a boiling
liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), for example when a tank
containing liquified petroleum gas bursts. Silo explosions, caused by the
ignition of finely-powdered atmospheric dust, are another example

Fuel-air explosives disperse an aerosol cloud of fuel which is ignited by an

embedded detonator to produce an explosion. The rapidly expanding wave
front due to overpressure flattens all objects within close proximity of the
epicenter of the aerosol fuel cloud, and produces debilitating damage well
.beyond the flattened area

The main destructive force of FAE is high pressure. More importantly, the
duration of the overpressure gives it an edge over conventional explosives and
makes fuel-air explosives useful against hard targets such as minefields,
.armored vehicles, aircraft parked in the open, and bunkers

3
There are dramatic differences between explosions involving high explosives
and vapor clouds at close distances. For the same amount of energy, the high
explosive blast overpressure is much higher and the blast impulse is much
lower than that from a vapor cloud explosion

The effects produced by FAEs (a long-duration high pressure and heat impulse)
are often likened to the effects produced by low-yield nuclear weapons, but
without the problems of radiation. Some fuels used, such as ethylene oxide and
propylene oxide, act like mustards. A device using such fuels can be dangerous
if the fuel fails to completely ignite; the device is at risk of producing the
effects of a chemical weapon. For vapor cloud explosion there is a minimum
ratio of fuel vapor to air below which ignition will not occur. Alternately, there
is also a maximum ratio of fuel vapor to air, above which ignition will not
occur. These limits are termed the lower and upper explosive limits

For gasoline vapor, the explosive range is from 1.3 to 6.0% vapor to air, and
for methane this range is 5 to 15%. Many parameters contribute to the potential
damage from a vapor cloud explosion, including the mass and type of material
released, the strength of ignition source, the nature of the release event (e.g.,
. turbulent jet release), and turbulence induced in the cloud

In 2003, United States Marines used a thermobaric version of their Shoulder-

Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapon, called a Shoulder-Launched
Multipurpose Assault Weapon-Novel Explosion (SMAW-NE), in the Invasion
of Iraq. One team of Marines reported that they had destroyed a large one-story
masonry type building with one round from 100 yards. The thermobaric
explosive used in this weapon, PBXIH-135 or a variant, was developed at the
Naval Surface Warfare Center (NSWC) Indian Head Division and had
previously been used in BLU-118/B air-dropped bombs against al Qaeda and
Taliban forces in Afghanistan in early March, 2002

4
 CHAPTER 4

THERMOBARIC WARHEAD FOR RPG-7

5
6
 FIG: 4.1 Thermobaric warhead for RPG-7 Terry Gander

Bulgaria has recently developed the GTB-7G grenade with a thermobaric

warhead, introducing the potential to expand the basic RPG-7 Knut (Knout)
portable rocket launcher into a true multipurpose weapon. The thermobaric
.warhead utilizes an advanced form of the fuel-air explosive concept

7
The contents of the 93mm diameter warhead are scattered in an aerosol form
on impact and then ignited to create a rapidly-formed, high-pressure blast
wave, equivalent to that produced by the detonation of 2kg of TNT. When
launched from an RPG-7 the GTB-7G grenade has a maximum direct-fire
range of 200m, with an initial velocity of 66m/sec (the maximum possible
.(range is 1,000m

The grenade weighs 4.7kg and is 1.12m long. It can be utilized with any RPG-7
launcher once the necessary sight adjustments have been made. The RGP-7
rocket launcher is in worldwide use and the GTB-7G grenade is now on offer
for export. The US Military sees thermobaric weapons as very useful and is
pressing ahead with the Thermobaric WeaponThis leverages existing concepts
and efforts in energetic payload technology (explosives), warhead case
.survivability, guidance, and operational tactics

CHAPTER 5
THERMOBARIC WEAPONS UNDER FIRE AGAIN

8
 FIG:5.1 THERMOBARIC WEAPONS UNDER FIRE AGAIN

November 22, 2005 War is ugly and inhumane but seemingly inevitable - there
are roughly 50 wars being fought somewhere on the planet at any given time
and the statistics show that we’re a long way from living peacefully together.
One of the problems with warfare, is that it is inevitably conducted in areas

9
where there are non-combatants - civilians are very fragile in a war zone.
Which brings us to perhaps the most interesting story of the week. The news
was put on the agenda by David Hambling in Defensetech, a military insider
news service, and covers a new weapon in use by the US Marines - the
SMAW-NE.

Now (Shoulder-Launched Multipurpose Assault Weapons (SMAW) have been

in use for two decades, using High Explosive Anti-Armor (HEAA) rockets
against tanks and High Explosive, Dual Purpose (HEDP) rockets against
bunkers, masonry and concrete walls, and light armor. But it’s the new Novel
Explosive (NE) rockets which are causing all the fuss. The Novel Explosive is
a thermobaric charge so destructive it can be used to demolish buildings -
which makes it very handy for quelling the resistance in a building full of
people shooting at you. Thermobarics first disperse a flammable mist of
underoxidised fuel which ignites to create a gigantic explosion of immense
destructiveness. The explosion of the SMAW-NE is effective in three main
ways. Firstly, it is accompanied by a massive fireball which incinerates all in
its path. Secondly, it creates a massive pressure wave capable of rupturing the
internal organs of all those nearby and so powerful that it can reduce load-
bearing walls to rubble and bring down buildings. Finally, the explosion also
sucks all the oxygen out of the air, asphyxiating anyone in the immediate
. vicinity

Wired magazine wrote about thermobaric devices and the coming of this
weapon agosearcher, Reuben Brigety as saying, "this significantly increases
the firepower that can be put in a single person's hands." "I'm not aware of any
other conventional munitions used by a single person that can have the same
destructive power."

Thermobaric devices are tailor-made for some situations, and there’s a much
bigger BLU-118/B Thermobaric Weapon in use, which is very good against
Hard and/or Deeply Buried Targets (HDBTs), and no place on Earth has more
military targets tunneled in rock than Afghanistan. See these excellent

10
diagrams showing the inventiveness of the Afghani trogolodites from the New
York Times and the Washington Post.

The airblast propagation of the BLU-118/B makes it ideal for detonation within
such a tunnel system and that’s what it is being used for. The US Military sees
thermobaric weapons as very useful and is pressing ahead with the Thermobaric
Weapon Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (ACTD). This leverages
existing concepts and efforts in energetic payload technology (explosives),
warhead case survivability, guidance, and operational tactics.

The thermobaric weapon integrates, demonstrates and delivers an improved

weapon system for the functional defeat of tunnel targets. Functional defeat
refers to eliminating a facility's capability to perform its intended function,
even though the structure itself may remain largely intact. It relies on denial,
disruption, degradation, or destruction of one or more of the critical elements in
the tunnel necessary to perform its mission (personnel, equipment, or
environmental support).The ACTD is intended to provide an improved military
capability that would require fewer weapons for functional defeat, provide
longer duration shutdown, compared to similar conventional attacks, and be
.less sensitive to intelligence gaps and uncertainties

CHAPTER 6

THERMOBARIC EXPLOSIVE

11
Volumetric weapons include thermobaric and fuel-air explosives (FAE). Both
thermobaric and FAE operate on similar technical principles. In the case of
FAE, when a shell or projectile containing a fuel in the form of gas, liquid or
dustexplodes, the fuel or dust like material is introduced into the air to form
acloud. This cloud is then detonated to create a shock wave of extended
duration that produces overpressure and expands in all directions. In a
thermobaric weapon, the fuel consists of a monopropellant and energetic
particles. The monopropellant detonates in a manner simular to TNT while the
particles burn rapidly in the surrounding air later in time, resulting an intense
fireball and high blast overpressure

Thermobaric munitions have been used by many nations of the world and their
proliferation is an indication of how effectively these weapons can be used in
urban and complex terrain. The ability of thermobaric weapons to provide
massed heat and pressure effects at a single point in time cannot be reproduced
by conventional weapons without massive collateral destruction. Thermobaric
weapon technologies provide the commander a new choice in protecting the
force, and a new offensive weapon that can be used in a mounted or
dismounted mode against complex environments

The USAF and USN are actively pursuing conventional weapons technology to
destroy Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) and support/storage facilities
while retaining or destroying the agents within the structure and minimizing
collateral damage including fatalities. Thermobaric weapons use high-
temperature incendiaries against chemical and biological facilities. The USN is
working on an Inter-Halogen Oxidizer weapon while the USAF is pursuing a
solid fuel-air explosive using aluminum particles. Both of these weapons use an
incineration technique to defeat and destroy the CB agents within the blast area

6.1 Thermobaric Weapon Demonstration:

The Thermobaric Weapon Demonstration is a proposed Advanced Concept

Technology Demonstration (ACTD). Under this program, prototype weapons

12
are to be tested under operational conditions for their performance, and leave-
behinds are to be delivered to the customer. The program aims to develop a
validated means of delivery to/into a tunnel adit [entrance]. Technical risks
include the extent to which candidate thermobaric payloads do not perform
substantially better than existing high explosives in tunnels

The Thermobaric [TB] Weapon Demonstration will develop a weapon concept

that is based on a new class of solid fuel-air explosive thermobarics.The
weapon could be used against a certain type of tunnel targets for a maximum
functional kill of the tunnels. Most of the Hard and/or Deeply Buried Targets
(HDBTs), namely tunnels in rock, are so deep that the developmental and
current inventory weapons cannot penetrate to sufficient depths to directly
destroy critical assets.

One of the warfighter's options is to attack the tunnel portals with weapons
that penetrate the thinner layer of rock above the portal, or though the exterior
doors, resulting in a detonation within the tunnel system. Penetrations through
the door systems have the potential to place the warheads deep within the
facility. Detonations within a tunnel, even only in a few diameters, have a
significant increase in airblast propagation into the facility compared to
external detonations. Tunnel layouts range from long, straight tunnels to
various types of intersections, expansions, constrictions, chambers, rooms,
alcoves, and multiple levels. All of these configurations affect the propagation
of airblast.

6.2 Air blast propagation:

Air blast propagation within a tunnel system has the potential to cause
significant damage to critical equipment and systems. If the critical equipment
within a facility can be damaged or destroyed, then the function of the facility

13
can be degraded or destroyed, resulting in a functional kill. Depending on the
purpose of the facility and the level of damage, a functional kill can be as
permanent as a "structural kill," in which the facility is destroyed in a more
traditional manner.

Functional kill from air blast loads is predicated on the ability to accurately
determine the blast environment from an internal detonation. The response of
critical equipment cannot be calculated without accurate blast loads. Unlike
free-field blast loads, a detonation within a tunnel system can have a significant
dynamic pressure component. This dynamic pressure component, in
conjunction with the overpressure component, makes up the entire pressure-
loading history necessary to predict component response.

6.3: Thermobaric compositions:

Thermobaric compositions are fuel rich high explosives that are enhanced
through aerobic combustion in the third detonation event. Performance
enhancement is primarily achieved by addition of excess metals to the
explosive composition. Aluminum and Magnesium are the primary metals of
choice.

The detonation of Composite Explosives can be viewed as three discrete events

merged together. All three explosive events can be tailored to meet system
performance needs:

The initial anaerobic detonation reaction, microseconds in duration, is

primarily a redox reaction of molecular species. The initial detonation reaction
defines the system’s high pressure performance characteristics: armor
penetrating ability.

The post detonation anaerobic combustion reaction, hundreds of microseconds

in duration, is primarily a combustion of fuel particles too large for combustion
in the initial detonation wave. The post detonation anaerobic reaction define the
system’s intermediate pressure performance characteristics: Wall/Bunker
Breaching Capability.

14
The post detonation aerobic combustion reaction, milliseconds in duration, is
the combustion of fuel rich species as the shock wave mixes with surrounding
air. The post detonation aerobic reaction characteristics define the system’s
personnel / material defeat capability: Impulse and Thermal Delivery. Aerobic
combustion requires mixing with sufficient air to combust excess fuels. The
shock wave pressures are less than 10 atmospheres. The majority of aerobic
combustion energy is available as heat. Some low pressure shock wave
enhancement can also be expected for personnel defeat. Personnel / material
defeat with minimum collateral structure damage requires maximum aerobic
enhancement and the highest energy practical fuel additives: Boron,
Aluminum, Silicon, Titanium, Magnesium, Zirconium, Carbon, or
Hydrocarbons.

Thermobaric materials can provide significantly higher total energy output than
conventional high explosives. The majority of the additional energy is available
as low pressure impulse and heat.

CHAPTER 7

FUEL AIR (THERMOBARIC) WEAPONS

15
Fuel Air or Thermobaric weapons have been around since the 1960s and have
evolved from the traditional incendiary round into a much more deadly and
versatile weapon now in its 3rd generation. Fuel air weapons work by using a
small charge within a bomb, rocket or grenade warhead to scatter a the contents
of the warhead which are either volatile gases , liquids or finely powdered
explosives. These then form an aerosol cloud (often poisonous to inhale) which
is then ignited creating a fireball which burns the surrounding area and
consumes oxygen in a wider area. This lack of oxygen creates an enormous
overpressure in a few micro seconds, which can reach 427lbs per square inch
(30kg/cm2) at the centre of the explosion and create temperatures of 2500-3000
.centigrade

The pressure is twice that created by traditional explosives, those not

incinerated are crushed to death and a powerful blast wave is sent out followed
by a vacuum sucking in objects as the cloud rapidly cools. All this creates a
weapon as powerful as a low level tactical nuclear weapon without the
.radiation

Fortifications, unless hermetically sealed offer little protection as the vapour

from the cloud flows into cavities. If used in a confined space such as inside a
building the blast is amplified. The weapon is effective vs. people , vehicles ,
equipment , fortifications and minefields making it very versatile. Thermobaric
weapons have been used by the Russians since the 1960's and were combat
tested during the Russians campaign in Afghanistan in the 1980's and have
been used during the modern Russian campaigns in Chechnya during the late
.1990s and early 21st century

The apart from weapons delivered by air the Russians developed the 'Buratino'
a 30 barrel 220mm MLRS based on a T-72 Chassis which was first used in the
1980s in Afghanistan with a range of 3.5-5km and a minimum range of 400
.meters

16
The Russians also use the man portable RPO -(A) Bumblebee system which is
a shoulder fired single shot rocket(flame thrower) with a range of 1,000 meters,
the RPO-(A) is the thermobaric weapon, while the RPO-(Z) and RPO-(D) fire
incendiary and smoke rounds respectively. Thermobaric weapons although
very effective are not without their critics, the use of them against Chechen
rebels by Russians has lead to accusations of indiscrimate use and civilian
.deaths especially during urban combat

The horrific nature of such weapons has also caused some concern that they
maybe classed as an 'inhumane weapon' which would mean their use being
.condemned by the United Nations

17
18
FIG 7.1: FAE-EXPLOSIVE

CHAPTER 8

BLU-118/B THERMOBARIC WEAPON

The BLU-118/B nomenclature was first reported on 21 December 2001, and
this weapon is clearly unrelated to the BLU-118 500 lb. napalm canister used
during the Vietnam war.The BLU-118/B is a penetrating warhead filled with
an advanced thermobaric explosive that, when detonated, generates higher
sustained blast pressures in confined spaces such as tunnels and underground
facilities. The BLU-118/B uses the same penetrator body as the standard BLU-
109 weapon. The significant difference is the replacement of the high explosive
fill with a new thermobaric explosive that provides increased lethality in
confined spaces.

The BLU-118/B warhead uses a Fuze Munition Unit (FMU)-143J/B to initiate

the explosive. The FMU-143 fuze has been modified with a new booster and a
120-millisecond delay. All weapon guidance systems and employment options
currently used with the BLU-109 warhead are compatible with the new BLU-
.118/B warhead

BLU-118/B payload candidates included PBXIH-135 [one of the Navy's new

insensitive polymer bonded explosives], HAS-13, or SFAE [solid fuel air
explosive] loaded into existing BLU-109 Weapon Bodies. Conventional high
explosives (CHE) are characterized by a sensitivity to mechanical or thermal

19
energy. Insensitive high explosives (IHE), on the other hand, require
extraordinarily high stimuli before violent reaction occurs. Insensitive
explosives reliably fulfil their performance, readiness and operational
requirements on demand, but the violence of response to unplanned hazardous
.stimuli is restricted to an acceptable level

This means that when a munition is in a fire, hit by a fragment, bullet or high
velocity projectile or subject to some other hazard the result will not be a
detonation or a violent reaction of the explosive and propellant; no more than
severe burning will ocur [such a deflagration is an exothermic reaction that
occurs particle to particle at subsonic speed]. Some insensitive explosives are
known to react in a different way to conventional explosives. For instance,
detonation reactions are slower but more energy is released in a way that has
.the potential to produce a lot more damage

8.1 BLU-118/B bomb body

The BLU-118/B bomb body can be attached to a variety of laser guidance

system packages, including the GBU-15, GBU-24, GBU-27, and GBU-28 laser
guided bombs, as well as the AGM-130 missiles. BLU-118B weapon
operational concepts include vertical delivery with the bomb detonated at or
just outside portal, skip bomb with short fuse (1st or second contact), skip
bomb with long fuse (penetrate door, max distance down adit), and vertical
delivery to penetrate overburden and detonate inside the tunnel adit.

In October 2001 the Department of Defense accelerated a number of programs

being pursued as Advanced Concept Technology Demonstrations (ACTD) that
could be used in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. The Defense
Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) organized a quick-response team on
October 11, 2001, that included Navy, Air Force, Department of Energy and
industry experts to identify, test, integrate and field a rapid solution that would
enhance weapons options in countering hardened underground targets.

Explosive experts at the Naval Surface Weapons Center, Indian Head, MD,
responded with a developmental explosive that provided enhanced internal

20
blast effects. The Air Force Precision Strike Program Office at Eglin AFB, FL,
led the team performing the weapon system integration, safety and flight
clearances, and produced a modified fuzing system for the new warhead. The
Indian Head facility conducted static testing of the fuze to demonstrate reliable
initiation of the new explosive. Indian Head experts were called upon to
provide the energetic solution, as PBXIH-135 was selected as the thermobaric
bomb fill for the Air Force BLU-109 bombs. This new thermobaric bomb,
designated as BLU-118/B, was developed within 67 days and subsequently
supported Operation Enduring Freedom. Both static and flight tests were then
conducted at full-scale tunnel facilities at the Nevada Test Site.

The BLU-118B was successfully tested at the Nevada Test Site on 14

December 2001. During that test, a Guided Bomb Unit (GBU)-24 laser-guided
weapon using the BLU-118B warhead was dropped from an F-15E attack
aircraft. The laser-guided bomb was "skipped" into a tunnel and exploded with
a delayed fuze, which produced a significant growth in overpressure and
temperature in the tunnel. When compared to the standard BLU-109 explosive,
results showed the new thermobaric weapon generated a significant
improvement in overpressure and pressure-impulse in the tunnel complex. The
test culminated a two-month accelerated effort to rapidly transition a
developmental explosive to improve lethality against underground facilities.
DTRA weaponized and delivered (within 60 days) 10 thermobaric-filled air
delivered munitions (BLU-118B) designed to enhance lethality in tunnel
environments.

On 21 December 2001 Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition Edward C.

Aldridge officially announced that a small number of the weapons were being
deployed to attack tunnels in Afghanistan. As of late January 2002, the Air
Force had completed verification and validation of the technical data and
operational flight clearances needed to deploy the BLU-118B warhead. Ten
warheads were, as a result, immediately made available to the U.S. Air Force
for deployment. These are compatible with the GBU-15, GBU-24, and Air-

21
launched Surface-attack Guided Missile (AGM)-130 weapon systems for
employment by U.S. Air Force F-15E Strike Eagle aircraft.

On or about Sunday 03 March 2002 a single 2,000-pound thermobaric bomb

was used for the first time in combat against cave complexes in which al-Qaeda
and Taliban fighters had taken refuge in the Gardez region of Afghanistan.

22
FIG 8.1: BLU-118B WAR HEAD

23
 Specifications

Bomb Live Unit (BLU)-118/B Thermobaric

Class
Warhead

 GBU-15

Guidance  GBU-24

 AGM-130

Total Weight
~ 1975
(lbs.)

Length (in.) 98.5

Diameter (in.) 14.5

Explosive Weight
~ 560
(lbs.)

Fuze FMU-143

Aircraft F-15E

TABLE 8.2 : 118B-BLU WAR HEAD

CHAPTER 9

24
 THERMOBARIC WARHEAD FOR URBAN OPS

Naval researchers are developing a portable version of the thermobaric bombs

employed to clear caves and bunkers in Afghanistan for the Marine Corps to
use in urban combat.

Thermobaric weapons are fuel-rich explosives that suck air from its target,
creating a lethal combination of heat and pressure that burns longer than
conventional explosives. The weapons are effective on hardened, underground
facilities, which are among the most difficult targets to eliminate.

Scientists and engineers at Indian Head, MD-based Naval Surface Warfare

Center are fabricating a thermobaric warhead that can operate with the
shoulder-mounted multipurpose assault weapon. According to a statement from
Naval Sea Systems Command, the Marines were so impressed with the success
of thermobaric weapons used in Operation Enduring Freedom that they
approached the Indian Head researchers and requested a shoulder-mounted
version of their own.

The Marines expect to receive the shoulder-mounted thermobaric arms in the

near term, according to Maj. Thomas Bowers, the infantry requirements officer
in the materials division at the Marine Corps Combat Development Command.
In "definitely less than a year" the warheads should be in the hands of some
Marines, though it is not slated to go out to every unit, Bowers told Inside the
Navy last week.

Thermobaric weapons were rushed into service to destroy the underground

targets in the war in Afghanistan. In October, the Pentagon accelerated
numerous advanced concept technology demonstrations, including a concept
designed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and NSWC that led to the
thermobaric warhead. After a rapid two-month development period, the
resulting BLU-118B was proven ready for war when it performed successfully
in a Dec. 14 test against a mock tunnel.

25
The BLU-118B, integrated into a laser-guided missile launched from an F-15
aircraft, was subsequently used in air strikes against al Qaeda and Taliban
targets in Afghanistan.

To develop the shoulder-mounted warhead, Indian Head researchers formed a

team with NSWC Dahlgren and private industry. The project recently
concluded phase one, which included integrating the PBXIH-135 explosive
into a shoulder-mounted warhead, redesigning the fuse interfaces, as well as
booster and warhead case design.

Phase two will involve completing safety certification and initial weapons
production.

The most obvious advantage of the shoulder-mounted version of the

thermobaric weapon is its increased potential for accuracy, given that they are
launched from a closer range. Man-portable warheads can be used with
"greater precision than air-dropped munitions and can provide immediate direct
support on the battlefield," according to John Pike, director of
GlobalSecurity.org, a Washington, DC-based defense policy group.

Pike added that the Marines, which already have several different shoulder-
mounted assault weapons, could use this warhead to provide additional
"specialized anti-emplacement capabilities."

Aside from using the warheads in such confined spaces as caves, tunnels and
bunkers, the Marines plan to use the thermobaric weapons on urban structures,
including buildings and sewers, said Bowers. Thermobaric warheads "tend to
have more enhanced blast effects," said Bowers, leading to the blast of multiple
rooms from one explosion, a decisive advantage over conventional weapons.

While the warhead is being developed particularly for the Marines, Pike said
the Army "will almost certainly want to evaluate something like this, assuming
that it proves feasible and effective."

Furthermore, the Pentagon is looking into other potential applications for the
warhead, including use against chemical and biological weapons sites.

26
Conventional explosives are considered problematic against chem-bio agents
because they can inadvertently spread the same dangerous agents the attack is
intended to destroy. Thermobaric weapons, on the other hand, could avoid this
threat by incinerating the deadly agents on impact.

Despite its tactical advantages, the thermobaric weapons program is not

without controversy. There is concern that in making these warheads more
portable, they will also be more accessible to terrorists who could obtain the
warhead for use against the United States.

Moreover, a similar weapon employed by the Russians during battles in

Chechnya resulted in the unintentional deaths of many civilians. Thermobaric
weapons have been reported as causing crushing injuries such as concussions,
collapsed lungs, internal hemorrhaging and eardrum ruptures. The warhead has
"caught the public's imagination," Pike said, leading many to call it inhumane.

"As it stands, these thermobaric weapons have generated a fair amount of

public misunderstanding, and have been made out to be a peculiarly horrible
means of killing people," Pike told ITN last week. "If it turned out that in
practice the primary effect was indeed incendiary, there might be some
problems under the international laws of armed conflict."

Flamethrowers and incendiary grenades are currently illegal under the Geneva
Conventions when used on civilians, civilian property or on military targets
near civilian populations.

CHAPTER 10

27
 THERMOBARIC WEAPONS
"It is among the most horrific weapons in any army's collection: the
thermobaric bomb, a fearsome explosive that sets fire to the air above its target,
then sucks the oxygen out of anyone unfortunate enough to have lived through
the initial blast"

The weapons, referred to as thermobaric explosives, were developed during the

Cold War in the Soviet Union, but there are concerns the device may have now
made their way into the hands of terrorists or rogue nations. Massive
thermobaric bombs kill by the force of their shockwave.

At the same time, some terrorist bombs, such as the one detonated last year by
al-Qaeda operatives on the Indonesian island of Bali, use the same principles
that are behind thermobaric explosives, say scientists with Defence Research
and Development Canada. That organization, which is leading the explosives
research, is the Canadian military's science agency.

Western militaries have traditionally concentrated their efforts on developing

what are known as fragmentation or penetration weapons. Those use explosives
to propel metal at a high velocity, either using a warhead to disable a vehicle,
such as a tank, or creating shrapnel to kill or wound victims.

"It turns out that other countries, the Russians in particular, went in the other
direction," Murray said. "They decided that blast was a very good way of
killing things."

For security reasons, specifics about how thermobaric warheads are designed.
However, generally they are believed to use highly flammable metal particles
mixed with a liquid high explosive. When ignited in a two-stage process, the
device creates a super-high heat and pressure blast capable of flattening
buildings and rupturing organs in people near the detonation point.

The Russians were able to design such weapons for use as bombs to be dropped
by aircraft or as rocket launchers that could be fired by soldiers.

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To study the effects of thermobaric explosions, the defence agency will
detonate a series of bombs, some the equivalent of 700 kilograms of TNT, to
simulate such blasts at its Suffield installation over the next several months.

Researchers from US and British government military agencies will be

involved in the Canadian program, which will continue over the next four
years. The Dutch and Norwegian governments have also expressed interest in
the research.

Canadian scientists are considered leaders in the field, having spent the past
decade studying thermobaric and similar blast weapons called fuel-air
explosives.

Russia used thermobaric bombs against Chechen rebels during its war in that
breakaway republic in the mid-1990s.(1)* In an attempt to dislodge al-Qaeda
and Taliban forces from caves in Afghanistan the US also rushed into
production thermobaric weapons. At least 10 were believed to have been used
in that war.

Other terrorist explosions, such as Timothy McVeigh's 1995 truck bomb that
killed 168 people in Oklahoma City and the Bali blast, are similar to
thermobaric weapons. The Bali explosion killed more than 200, including two
Canadians. "Some of the terrorist explosions out there look a lot like
thermobaric mixtures," Murray added.

The defence agency will test how particular structures hold up under a
thermobaric blast attack. One such test will involve what the Canadian army is
calling the "Afghan OP," observation posts built by other militaries that
Canadian troops serving in Afghanistan in the coming months will occupy.

Murray said since western militaries focused on protecting against

fragmentation weapons, their equipment is generally not suited to provide
protection against thermobaric blasts.

The defence agency hopes to eventually develop computer software that will
allow military engineers to quickly determine whether the structure of a

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building might be vulnerable to a thermobaric explosion. The idea is to have
the system capable of rating the blast resistance of a building within 30
minutes.

Similar technology could also help combat engineers and officers determine
how to best build field fortifications or determine the layout of an encampment
to resist the blast effects of a thermobaric warhead or a large truck bomb.

At the same time scientists in Valcartier, Quebec, are trying to come up with
better protective equipment for soldiers to deal with thermobaric blasts.

US agencies are particularly interested in what would happen to buildings and

people if such blast weapons were used by terrorists, as well as developing
protective methods. "They're very concerned about large vehicle bombs,"
Murray said. -- Edited and excerpted from the article by David Pugliese

The Army's ultimate goal is to put thermobaric mini-bombs into the XM29, its
next-generation rifle. The 33-inch-long weapon is designed to fire two types of
rounds: standard bullets and programmable, grenade-like ammunition that
explode in the air.

Each of these high-explosive air-bursting rounds comes imbedded with a

computer chip, explained Lt. Col. Rob Carpenter, who oversees the XM29
program at Picatinny Arsenal, the Army's lone research-and-development
center for armaments and ammunition. These chips allow the soldier to
program exactly when and where the ammunition should go off. If there are
enemy forces behind a wall 150 feet away, the round can explode at 151 feet,
over their heads.

"With the M16 (rifle, the American infantry's longtime standard), it took a
considerable amount of ammunition to take out a squad of people," said Patrick
Garrett, an analyst with Globalsecurity.org. "With this air-bursting
ammunition, the XM29 will be able to put those people on the ground in one
shot."

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The XM29 -- which won't make it into soldiers' hands until 2006 -- gets even
deadlier when thermobaric ammunition is added.

Thermobarics inject a fine, flammable mist into the air, Brigety said. Once
ignited, the mist creates a mammoth fireball and pressure wave that's nearly
impossible to avoid. The mist can travel around corners and into hidden
crannies. And it burns relatively slowly, so jumping out of the way on the
bomb's initial impact isn't much of a survival tactic.

Once the fire dies down, the mist sucks all of the oxygen out of the confined
space. Those who manage to escape the thermobaric flames and pressure waves
quickly expire from asphyxiation.

The fuel that's shot out of a thermobaric weapon is underoxidized, according to

Judah Goldwasser, a program officer at the Office of Naval Research. When it
mixes with the ambient oxygen in a room, it begins to ignite. It's not hard to
imagine why the military used 2,000-pound thermobaric bombs in
Afghanistan*(2): They are almost tailor-made for destroying cave-based
encampments.

Nor is it difficult to see why soldiers faced with rooting out loyalists to Saddam
Hussein in Baghdad would covet a small version of such a weapon. City
combat is dangerously unpredictable because any corner could hide an enemy.
Soldiers often clear every room of every building they sweep. Thermobaric
ammunition can eliminate enemies in several rooms at once.

"For urban warfare (thermobarics) could be very effective," said Andrew Koch,
Washington bureau chief of Jane's Defence Weekly. "If you lob a grenade in
the entrance of a building, it hits just the people in the entrance. A thermobaric
weapon would (go) though the rest of the building."

Koch added, "You might not need to have Marines fighting room to room to
room if you have one of these

The United States and its allies face a growing threat related to critical military
targets hidden within and shielded by hardened, deeply buried tunnel

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complexes. The Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) is seeking
commercial technology solutions to address the Department of Defense's needs
for advanced energetics and novel explosives. The targets of interest are those
that may generate more energy, larger power, larger impulse or greater lethality
than conventional high explosives.

FIG 10.1 Thermobaric Bomb Test

CHAPTER 11

32
 CONCLUSION
The goal of the seminar "Thermobaric Weapon " already defined has been
successfully achieved . The seminar has been designed and taken to satisfiy the
needs of the end users.It has also resulted in quick retrival and reference of
required information, which is vital to the degree of the seminar.

The entire seminar topic thrmobaric weapon has been documented and can be
easily understood by the end users.The documentation is very userfriendly and
.also easy to under stand

CHAPTER 12

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 REFERENCECES
1. Luke Harding. "Russia unveils the 'father of all bombs'",
Guardian Unlimited, -

2. Taylor, Sir Geoffrey Ingram, "The formation of a blast wave by a

very intense explosion".

3. Neumann, John von, "The point source solution," John von

Neumann. Collected Works, edited by A. J. Taub, Vol. 6

4. Latter, R., "Similarity solution for a spherical shock wave,"

Journal of Applied Physics, (1955).

5. Lockwood-Taylor, J., "An exact solution of the spherical blast

wave problem," Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 46, pages 317 - 320
(1955).

6. Cathy J. Clarke & Bob Carswell; Principles of Astrophysical

Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press (2007).

External links

1. "The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion" G. I.

Taylor's solution

2. ^ https://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/PopTopics/histechintel.htm

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