Dept.

for Speech, Music and Hearing

Quarterly Progress and
Status Report

An investigation of acoustical
properties of the air cavity of
the violin
Jansson, E. V.

journal: STL-QPSR
volume: 14
number: 1
year: 1973
pages: 001-013

http://www.speech.kth.se/qpsr
STL-QPSR 1/1973

I. MUSICAL ACOUSTICS

A. AN ?SVESTIGATION O F ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES

O F THE AIR CAVITY O F THE VIOLIN
E. V. Jansson

Abstract
In a preliminary survey of experimental results, it was shown
that higher a i r modes in a violin-shaped cavity can be excited (l).
In the present report the experimental apparatus and the findings
a r e reported in detail, and a f i r s t analysis of the results a r e given.
It i s proved that resonance frequencies can be predicted by means
of f i r s t o r d e r perturbations, the losses a r e approximately three
times minimum (boundary layer losses), but considerably smaller
than calculated 10s se s calculated for a typical absorption coefficient
of architectual acoustics.

1. Introduction

The walls of the sounding box of the violin enclose almost entirely
the a i r volume. The total a r e a of the walls i s approximately 100
times l a r g e r than that of the f-holes. The zero-order resonance of
this cavity, i.e. the Helmholtz resonance, i s well known and has
been proved to be important for the low-frequency properties of the
violin ( 2 * 3). The size of the cavity i s large enough to support many
higher resonances in the frequency range of amplification(*). T r a c e s
of higher a i r modes have been found(5). It i s commonly accepted,
that the position of the f-holes "damps out" the higher a i r modes,
o r that these modes a r e ineffective sound radiators('). The small
a r e a of the f-holes compared to the enclosing surface a r e a suggests
that higher modes exist. Such modes may, however, still be irn-
portant a s coupling mechanisms between the places. In a prelimi-
nary presentation of this experimental work, it has been shown that .
a t least between the f i r s t top plate mode and the first higher a i r mode
there exists such coupling (7) .
This work was conducted to improve the understanding of the
properties of the enclosed a i r volume. The investigation is a natural
continuation of the detailed studies of plate vibrations. Although a
good understanding of the plates only was obtained, some phenomena
of the complete instrument was still not possible to explain.

The shape of the violin cavity is complex. The position and shape
of the f-holes a r e also complex. However, both the measures of the
STL-QPSR 1/1973

a i r volume and the f-holes a r e approximately the s a m e in m o s t in-

s t r u m e n t s , i. e. by studying one cavity we shall obtain information
significant f o r m o s t violins. With this f a c t i n mind this investiga-
tion h a s been conducted. The goal h a s p r i m a r i l y been to obtain a
good understanding of the physical m e c h a n i s m s . The r e f o r e simple
m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s methods a r e employed to provide significant
physical information, r a t h e r than n u m b e r s a c c u r a t e l y reproducing
those of the experiments. The physical a n a l y s e s and the matherna-
t i c a l modelling a r e p e r f o r m e d in detail enough to show that the d i f -
f e r e n t mechanism8 a r e qualitatively understood. In conclusion we
m a y s a y that i n this investigation, a t i t s p r e s e n t level of sophistica-
tion, we a r e p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in a qualitative understanding.
T h e r e f o r e we f e e l f r e e to u s e f a i r l y rough approximations, and to
e s t i m a t e magnitudes and d i r e c t i o n of changes by f i r s t o r d e r p e r -
turbation theory. The detailed n u m e r i c a l a n a l y s i s i s left f o r future
work, when such i s needed.

2. Theory

F o r r e a d i l y r e f e r e n c e and discussion, l e t u s f i r s t s u m m a r i z e
m o s t l y well known equations and formulas. The sound p r e s s u r e p
f o r a simple h a r m o n i c wave obeys the wave equation, which, ,with
the common t i m e dependent p a r t removed, can be written a s

w h e r e k = 2 TI f / c i s the wave n u m b e r , f the f r e q u e n c y , and c the

velocity of the sound. F r o m the sound p r e s s u r e the p a r t i c l e velo-
city 6 can be calculated a s

where p i s the density.

If the sound p r e s s u r e i s enclosed within the rigid walls of a

rectangular cavity and one c o r n e r i s chosen a s origin and the a x e s
s e t p a r a l l e l with the edges, the f ~ l ~ o w i nstanding
g wave solution i s
obtained:
STL-QPSR 1/1973

p = p o cos(kx * x ) c o s ( k y)cos(kZ*z ) (3)

Y

The different r e s o n a n c e s a r e labelled by the combination of n u m b e r s

n n and n F o r cylindrical rigid boundaries with the origin in
X' y' z
the c e n t e r of one of the f l a t walls the following standing wave solution
in cylindrical coordinates i s obtained:

cos
P = Po sin (my ) c o s ( ~ , z ) J , ( ~ , ~ )

The different m o d e s a r e labelled by the combination of nZ, m , and n.

The resonance density within a frequency band df in a cavity i s ap-
proximately d e s c r i b e d by

w h e r e V i s the volume, A the a r e a of the enclosing w a l l s , and L the

t o t a l edge length (= 4 (n ' r a d i u s + height) f o r the cylindrical cavity).
The total number of r e s o n a n c e s i s obtained by integration of Eq. (7).
F o r low f r e q u e n c i e s the s e p a r a t e r e s o n a n c e s c h a r a c t e r i z e the p r o p e r -
t i e s of a s y s t e m f o r higher density of r e s o n a n c e s . F o r frequency
calculations Rayleigh h a s worked out simple perturbation f o r m u l a s( 8 , 9 )
Although these a r e given under s t r i c t e r l i m i t s , we s h a l l f e e l f r e e to
u s e them slightly reworked to e s t i m a t e e f f e c t s i n changes. For a
tube of
.
"

a l m o s t constant c r o s s - s e c t i o n S
0
 STL-QPSR 1/1973

F o r a rectangular room

2
-
Pthe r m a l

2
mg v*p0 Rs
Pviscous --•
- 2 2
9 Ex cy "z

Through a hole in the wall the vibrations of the inner a i r cornmuni-

cates with the outer room. The possible transmission through this
hole i s determined by the length of the hole, and the shapes of the
hole and the surrounding flanges. F o r thin-walled cavities the so-
called length correction because of the flanges is dominant. For
such complicated boundaries a s encountered in the violin it i s quite
complex to calculate the effects of the sound holes. F o r a qpalita -
tive study we shall just cite the approximative radiation impedance
3

Z of a rectangular piston a x b cmL in an infinite wall at low f r e -

r
quencies by Morse and Ingard (12) ,

A loss -free system oscillates a t a frequency where its average

potential energy W equals i t s average kinetic energy W k (13)( 14), i. e.
P
STL-QPSR 1/1973

for the s a m e n o r m a l mode p e r t u r b e d by A to the frequency

k

29 Af
if Wk = -
const
then 0 = Wo 2Af + dW
(~nf)~ [-TI
0

W 0 )-I
and -
A fo = 1/2(1 t
AW -
0 P
where fo i s the resonance frequency of the unperturbed mode. In
the c a s e of a s m a l l hole perturbation ( s m a l l radiation l o s s e s )

w h e r e Peff i s the effective p r e s s u r e over the hole a r e a Sh. The

-
radiation l o s s e s Pr can be calculated a s

3. Experiments

F o r the resonance m e a s u r e m e n t s a s p e c i a l m e a s u r i n g probe

was constructed (Fig. I-A- 1). Slightly off c e n t e r on a plexi-glas s
plug a n STL-Ionophone (a v e r y high impedance s o u r c e ) w a s mounte 615)
li
.
In the s a m e plug a B&K 1/2 microphone with t h r e e s h o r t and v e r y
thin c a p i l l a r y tubes (lengths approximately 2 c m and each with a
d i a m e t e r of ,015 c m ) ( I 6 ) . This sond, together with the microphone,
gave a very smooth r e s p o n s e i n the frequency range r e p o r t e d on h e r e .
The sond openings and the Ionophone w e r e placed about 1 c m apart.
Thus a probe with a s m a l l s o u r c e and a s m a l l indicator, enabling e a s y
m e a s u r i n g of resonance frequencies and Q - f a c t o r s of a not too highly
damped cavity.

F o u r different cavities with 2 crn thick wooden walls w e r e invest-

igated. T h r e e of the cavities w e r e made w.ith two f l a t w a l l s , a l l
walls of equal a r e a s , and the s a m e distance betwe e n t h e s e two walls.
 SECTION A-A

\r?

Fig. I-A-la. S k e t c h of m e a s u r i n g p r o b e with holding f i x t u r e ; F i g . I-A- l b . Violin-shaped c a v i t y with

s e c t i o n a n d f r o n t view. Holding f i x t u r e : a b u s h - the p o s i t i o n s of b u s h i n g s
ing B glued to t h e c a v i t y w a l l W. M e a s u r i n g f o r the m e a s u r i n g p r o b e
p r o b e : a p l e x i g l a s s plug P with the S T L - I o n o p h o n e m a r k e d by c i r c l e s .
S a n d i t s i n s o l a t e d c o n n e c t i v e w i r i n g I, a n d a m i -
c r o p h o n e C w i t h a t h r e e - t u b e sond M. A l l j o i n t s
a r e m a d e a i r t i g h t by m e a n s of O - r i n g s 0. '
STL-QPSR 1/1973

Thus the cavities contained ;).pproximatzly the same volume, en-

closing a r e a and total e e ~ lengths.
e These m e a s u r e s were volume
1420 f 1 %, a r e a 1is0 cmZ f 1 %, and length 185 cm 2 1 1 %, the
p e r centages giving the discrepancies between the different cavities.
3
The f i r s t cavity was a rectangular cavity of 27 x 17 x 3 . 1 c m , the
second a cylindrical cavity of diameter 24. 1 cm and 3.1 cm high.
The third cavity was shaped a s a violin (Fig. I-A-ib) with f l a t top
and back plates. All walls were made of solid wood except from
one of the flat wzils cf each cavity v ~ h i c hwas made of hard p r e s s e d
wood fiber plate. The f r a m e (rectangular, c i r c u l a r , o r violin-
shaped) and the "top" and the "back" plates were made in three dif-
ferent parts. ' When screwed together for experiments the c a v i t i ~ s
w e r e made airtight by means of greased thin rubber gaskets. The
fourth cavity was a r e a l violin, which was encased in plaster. One
p a r t of the plaster mould was covering the f-holes and the neighbor
area,and was easily removable, When this piece was removed a
reasonably c o r r e c t termination by radiating f -hole s was accomplished
(the shape, the position, and the wall thickness a t and of the f -holes
correct).

In the top plates of a l l cavities bushings were glued. The bush-

ings were carefully machined to automatically s e t the probe plug
level with the inner surfaces of the cavities. The bushings were
placed in a corner of the rectangular cavity, close to the edge of the
cylindrical cavity, and according to Fig. I-A- l b for the l a s t two
cavities. The distances to two walls o r a corner were never l a r g e r
than a centimeter for either the sond o r the Ionophone. Therefore
the input impedances measured were little influenced by probe posi-
tions, Before the acoustical measurements were started, it was
controlled that the cavity was reasonably a i r tight. Thereafter the
room temperature within the cavity was measured - in some cases
also the humidity. Thereafter a frequency response was recorded,
and the peak frequencies and halfpower bandwidths were carefully
STL-QPSR 1/1973

m e a s u r e d by hand. Finally the t e m p e r a t u r e in the cavity was m e a s -

u r e d again, and the cavity w a s taken a p a r t . The whole s e t of m e a s -
u r e m e n t s w e r e t h e r e a f t e r repeated twice.

The t h r e e readings w e r e averaged. The outer bounds of frequen-

c i e s w e r e found to be about . 5 O/o and those of the bandwidth 10 OJo.
The t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity variations w e r e s m a l l enough to be
negligible.

In the violin-shaped cavity the standing wave p a t t e r n s w e r e esti-

mated. This was done by drilling s m a l l h o l e s a t different places,
and by m e a s u r i n g the phase and the amplitude of the sound p r e s s u r e
by m e a n s of a microphone with a s h o r t sond through the holes.

4. Results

The g e o m e t r i c a l m e a s u r e s of volume, a r e a , and edge length, and

Eq. (7) give the smooth lines in Fig. I-A-2. Integration of Eq. ( 7 )
r e s u l t s in N=24 below 4 kHz. In the e x p e r i m e n t s 2 1, 24, 24, and 25
r e s o n a n c e s w e r e found in the four different closed c a v i t i e s , r e s p e c -
tively. With open f -holes the number of r e s o n a n c e s in the encased
violin d r o p s to 23. Thus we find good a g r e e m e n t between the t h e o r e -
tically predicted and experimentally observed r e s u l t s . •

A c l o s e r look a t the resonances below 2 kHz r e i n f o r c e s the s t a t e -

m e n t that the number of resonances is f a i r l y independent of shape
(Fig. I-A-3a). F o r a m o r e complex boundary, a s the violin bounda-
r i e s , i t i s not possible to w r i t e the solution to the wave-equation as
a product of t h r e e s e p a r a b l e solutions and it is not possible to c a l -
culate the standing waves by simple means. The solution was t h e r e -
f o r e obtained by m e a n s of probe m e a s u r e m e n t s (Fig: I-B-3b). A
brute f o r c e method a s the finite e l e m e n t method can always be a p -
plied, but will give little physical insight besides f r o m the m e a s u r e -
m e n t s in Fig. I-A-3b, if not c a r r i e d out into g r e a t detail. The
stability of the r e s u l t s can, however, be t e s t e d by m e a n s of p e r t u r b a -
tion theory. But before we go into t h a t , l e t u s study the resonance
frequencies m o r e in detail.
 RESONANCE D E N S I T I E S I N RECTANGULAR and
C Y L I N D R I C A L ROOM

RESONANCE D E N S I T I E S I N ENCASED V I O L I N
CLOSED and OPEN F-HOLES

Fig. I-A-2a. Resonance densities in the rectangular cavity, solid

lines; in the cylindrical cavity, broken lines ; and
the theoretical average, the third smooth line. All
cavities of approx. the s a m e volumes, a r e a s , and
edge lengths a s those of a violin.
b. Resonance densities in the encased violin with closed
f-holes, solid lines; with open f - h o l e s , broken lines;
and the theoretical average, the third smooth line.
 RESONANCES OF T H I N C A V I T I E S W I T H
TWO FLAT WALLS OF ECUAL AREA

IV l OL i NSHAPED

I
CYLINDRICAL

kHz

Fig, I-A-3a. Resonances of the rectangular cavity, the f l a t violin-shaped cavity,

-
and the cylindrical cavity a l l cavities with approx. equal volumes,
a r e a s , and edge lengths. Labelling of m o d e s in the rectangular
c a v i t y ( n x , n ): (031), (1,O). ( 1 , l ) . (0,2), (1,2), and (0,3). Labeling
of m o d e s i n dbe cylindrical cavity (rn, n): (ti,O ) , ( + 2 , O ) , (0, I ) , (t3,O).

THE SEVEN LOWEST MOOES OF A V I O L I N S H A P E D C A V I T Y

--
- -
[ I
MAX. SOUNDPRESSURE

M l N . SOUNDPRESSURE

PHASE 0

PMASEn I

Fig. I-A-3b. Standing wave p a t t e r n s of the seven lowest m o d e s in the f l a t violin-

;
shaped cavity. Resonance f r e q u e n c i e s 460,1040,1130,1300,1590,
1800, and 1920 Hz.
 STL-QPSR 1/1973 9.

F o r the rectangular and the cylindrical cavities the m e a s u r e d

resonance frequencies a g r e e closely with those calculated a s -
suming rigid wall ( 7 5 70of the frequencies within .5 % and 98 70
within I 70 of those m e a s u r e d ) . This m e a n s t h a t the assumptions
made regarding the frequency prediction is i n good o r d e r . .

A s a l r e a d y said, the resonance frequencies f o r a complex bound-

a r y i s h a r d to calculate f r o m the wave-equation. But by m e a n s of
perturbation and employing Eqs. (8) and (9) can the frequency s h i f t s
f r o m a s i m p l e r boundary be estimated. If the "trial" function of
the s i m p l e r boundary i s close to the r e a l solution, then a n a c c u r a t e
e s t i m a t e i s obtained; f o r a l e s s close a m e a s u r e of the magnitude
and direction should a t l e a s t be obtained. This m e a n s that p e r t u r b a -
tion calculations a r e physically v e r y informative. In o u r c a s e we
s h a l l be working somewhere in between the two c a s e s sketched. We
s t a r t by looking a t the standing wave p a t t e r n s given in Fig. I-A-3b.
We find that the f i r s t , second, third, and fifth m o d e s a r e of longi-
tudinal type (n =nz=O, n = I , 2 , 3 rectangular boundary). The n a t u r a l
X Y
t r i a l function is of the type given in Eq. (3). After averaging, the vol-
ume of upper and lower end blocks with that of the adjacent cavity
a n effective rectangular cavity i s obtained giving the d i s c r e p a n c i e s
between calculated and m e a s u r e d frequencies m a r k e d by c i r c l e s in
Fig. I-A-4. By applying Eq. (8) the f r e q u e n c y shifts corresponding
to boundary perklrbaticns a r e obtained. Although Eq. (8) can not p o s -
sibly be expected to a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t the frequency shifts, we find
that the l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e removed. The second and fourth
m o d e s a r e of " t r a n s v e r s e " type in e i t h e r the upper o r the lower
half. Both modes have p r e s s u r e maxima a t the bouts and nodal
planes along the midsectional symnletry plane. The w a l l s a r e ap-
proximately c i r c u l a r , i, e. , a reasonable t r i a l function i s that of
Eq. (5) with n = l ,n = n =O. The corresponding r e s o n a n c e s of a
z
cylindrical cavity touching the inner walls a t the bouts m a r k e d with
c i r c l e s a r e shown in Fig. I-A-4. The p e r t u r b a t i o n s calculated f r o m
 FREQUENCY E S T I M A T E S

Fig. I-A-4. Differences between calculated and measured resonance fre

quencies of the flat violin-shaped cavity. Circles correspond
- 1
to the frequencies calculated from the trial functions, and tri-
angles to the frequencies calculated from the boundaries of the .
trial functions pertrubed to fit those of the violin-shaped cavity.
 B O U N D A R Y P E R T U R B A T l ONS

I
i

0 >
2.0 kHz

FREQUENCY S H I F T S FROM BOUNDARY PERTURBATIONS

F i g . I-A-5a. Different p e r t u r b a t i o n s Fig. I-A-5b. F r e q u e n c y s h i f t s calculated with the

of the violin-shaped boundary p e r t u r b a t i o n s of F i g . I - A - 5 a .
boundaries - only one
of the two s y m m e t r i c a l
halves a r e m a r k e d i n
the f i g u r e .
 J

RECTANGULAR ROOM

QmV=3,3n
a =0,33
I 1 I

0 . 4

2a
F L A T V I O L I N S H A P E D ROOM
(.

r
. C Y L I N D R I C A L ROOM

-
loo -
- a,,= 2,3e
a =0,15
I I 1 rn

0 1 2 3 4 kHz

Fig. I-A-6. Measured Q-factor s of (a) the rectangular cavity,

(b) the f l a t violin-shaped cavity, and (c) the
cylindrical cavity. Single m e a s u r e s marked by
dots and average by the solid line.
STL-QPSR 1/1973

Estimates according to Eqs. ( 1 2 - 16) show the following. The

boundary layer l o s s e s a r e dominated by the viscous l o s s e s and

Q-+ 10 J f '

i. e. an average Q, a third in magnitude of the measured. By adding

wall l o s s e s with a standard % = 0.08 i s obtained

f + 4 kHz

This results in an overestimate of the total losses of approximately

ten to three times compared to those measured. Thus we may con-
clude that the boundary layer l o s s e s a r e not the whole contribution
to the l o s s e s , but the 10s s e s to the walls a r e considerably s m a l l e r
than a typical Gw indicates. The results a r e in agreement with
Schelleng ' s findings ( 1 7 ).
Let u s s o study the effects of arching and f -holes. The arching
of a violin i s smooth and moderate, the greatest depth being about 1
#

cm. Therefore we do not expect any l a r g e r changes in l o s s e s , vibra-

tion patterns, and resonance frequencies because of the arching.
The measurements show that the l o s s e s a r e within the uncertainty
of calculations. The frequency shifts a r e also small, within + 3 aJo,
this also being in agreement with the expectations.

The influence of the f -holes on radiation and frequencies a r e

determined by the hole geometry and the position of the holes in r e -
lation to the standing wave, which i s shown by Eqs. (19 - 2 1). There - '

fore the standing wave patterns of Fig. I-A-3b, can be used to

estimate the effects of the f-holes., F r o m the standing wave patterns
we find immediately that the third and fifth modes have high sound p r e s -
s u r e s a t the position of the f -hole s. Therefore these mode s should be
influenced m o s t by the f-holes. The third mode acts in agreement
 FREQUENCY D I F F E R E N C E S ARCHED-FLAT and
OPEN-CLOSED A R C H E D

Fig. I-A-7. Differences between m e a s u r e d resonance f r e q u e n c i e s of the

e n c a s e d violin with closed f - h o l e s , and of the f l a t violin-
shaped cavity ( c i r c l e s ) . Differences between m e a s u r e d r e -
sonance frequencies of the e n c a s e d violin with open f -holes,
and with closed f -holes ( s q u a r e s ) .
 d

ENCASED VIOLIN-CLOSED F-HOLES

- 0,,=2,9Vf
U =0,42

I
1 1 I

2 3 4 kHz

0 I

200 - ENCASED VIOLIN-OPEN F-HOLES

150 -
100 -

50 -
6 =0,65
I
0 t 1 I 1

0 1 2 3 4 kHz

Fig. I-A-8. Measured Q-factors of the encased violin with (a)

closed f -holes and (b) open f-holes. Single meas
' -
ures marked by dots and average by the solid line.
STL-QPSR 1/1973 12.

with the theoretical conclusions, the Q drops considerably and the

frequency increases. The radiation of the fifth mode i s s o effective
that the mode cannot be traced with open f-holes. The relatively
large frequency shifts of the f i r s t mode is likely to stem the in-
2
c r e a s e in velocity through the f-holes due to the (1/27 f) factor, Eq.
( 20). A study of the average Q:s shows that the f-holes on the a v e r -
age have resulted in a clear decrease in Q-factors (Fig. I-A-8).
Furthermore we can see several examples of what previously has
been discussed. Certain modes a r e damped harder than others,
thus giving a still greater spread in the Q:s from the average. The
losses of the f i r s t resonance a r e little effected by the f -holes, which
may seem contradictory. However, the predicted increase of velo-
city through the f-holes is compensated by the decrease in radia-
tion resistance, Eq. (17).

5. Conclusions

The experiments have proved that in a violin-shaped cavity two

types of resonances a r e easily found in the lower frequency range:
I
1) Longitudinal resonances in the complete cavity, and 2) transverse
resonanceseither between the upper o r the lower bouts. The rdso-
nances a r e moderately influenced by boundary perturbations a s a r c h -
ing and f-holes. The power l o s s e s within the cavity a r e shown to be
l a r g e r than the boundary layer losses (a theoretical minimum) but
considerably smaller than 10sse s predicted from dampings of wooden
walls. The effect of the f -holes follows the qualitative predictions,
the main factor being the position of standing waves in relation to
position of the f-holes.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Swedish Humanistic Research

Council and the Swedish Natural Science Research Council.
 STL-QPSR 1/1973

References
(1) E. J a n s son: "Recent Studies of Wall and Air Resonances in
the Violinff, paper QQ3 presented a t the 84th Meeting of
the Acoustical Society of A m e r i c a , Miami Beach, NOV.
28-Dec. i , 1972 and STL-QPSR 4/1972, pp. 34-39.
(2) F. A. Saunder s: "The Mechanical Actions of Violinstf, J.
Acoust.Soc. Am. 9 (1937), pp. 81 -98.
(3) J. C. Schelleng: "The Violin a s a Circuit", J. Acoust. Soc.
Am. 35 (i963), pp. 326-338 and p. 1291.
(4) E. Jansson: "Analogies between Bowed-String Instruments
and the Human Voice, Source F i l t e r Models", STL-QPSR
3/1966, pp. 4-6.
(5) F. A. Saunders: "Recent Work on Violins", J. Acoust. Soc.
Am. 25 (1953), pp. 491 -498.
( 6 ) s e e , for instance, ref. (3).
(7) see r e f . (I).
(8) J. W. Rayleigh: Theory of Sound, Vol. 11, pp. 66 -68 (Dover,
New York 1945).
(9) J. W . Rayleigh: Theory of Sound, Vol. I, pp. 336-338 (Dover,
New York 1945).
(10) L. Crerner: " e b e r die akustische Grenzschicht von s t a r r e n
Wanden", Archiv d. Elektr. Ubertragung 2 (1948), pp.-
136-139.
I

1) U. Ingard: "On the Theory and Design of Acoustic Resonators",

(I
J.Acoust. Soc.Arn. 25 (1953), pp. 1037 -1061.
(12) P. M. M o r s e and K, U. Ingard: Theoretical Acoustics, pp.
392-394 (McGraw Hill, New York 1968).
(13) cf. J. W. Rayleigh: Theory of Sound, Vol. I, § 91 (Dover,
New York 1945)-
(14) s e e also G. Temple and W. G. Bickley: Rayleigh' s Principle
and its Applications to Engineerifis over,
New York 1956).
(15) F. F r a n s s o n and E. Jansson: ro roper ties of the STL-Iono-
phone Transducer", STL-QPSR 2 -3/1971, pp. 43-52.
(16) This sond was constructed by F. F r a n s s o n for m e a s u r e m e n t s
on flutes, but turned out to be an excellent sond for a l l .
kinds of m e a s u r e m e n t s a s in the p r e s e n t case.
(17) s e e ref. (3).