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1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is a toxic, white crystalline solid with a sweet tarry
odor, commonly referred to as a "hospital smell". Its chemical formula is C6H5OH and its
structure is that of a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a phenyl ring; it is thus an aromatic
compound.
Phenols are similar to alcohols but form stronger hydrogen bonds. Thus, they are more
soluble in water than are alcohols and have higher boiling points. Phenols occur either as
colorless liquids or white solids at room temperature and may be highly toxic and caustic.
Phenols are widely used in household products and as intermediates for industrial synthesis.
For example, phenol itself is used (in low concentrations) as a disinfectant in household
cleaners and in mouthwash. Phenol may have been the first surgical antiseptic. In 1865 the
British surgeon Joseph Lister used phenol as an antiseptic to sterilize his operating field. With
phenol used in this manner, the mortality rate from surgical amputations fell from 45 to 15
percent in Lister’s ward. Phenol is quite toxic, however, and concentrated solutions cause
severe but painless burns of the skin and mucous membranes. Less-toxic phenols, such as n-
hexylresorcinol, have supplanted phenol itself in cough drops and other antiseptic
applications. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) has a much lower toxicity and is a common
antioxidant in foods.
In industry, phenol is used as a starting material to make plastics, explosives such as picric
acid, and drugs such as aspirin. The common phenol hydroquinone is the component of
photographic developer that reduces exposed silver bromide crystals to black metallic silver.
Other substituted phenols are used in the dye industry to make intensely colored azo dyes.
Mixtures of phenols (especially the cresols) are used as components in wood preservatives
such as creosote.
Phenols are common in nature; examples include tyrosine, one of the standard amino acids
found in most proteins; epinephrine (adrenaline), a stimulant hormone produced by the
adrenal medulla; serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain; and urushiol, an irritant secreted
by poison ivy to prevent animals from eating its leaves. Many of the more complex phenols
used as flavorings and aromas are obtained from essential oils of plants. For example,
vanillin, the principal flavoring in vanilla, is isolated from vanilla beans, and methyl
salicylate, which has a characteristic minty taste and odour, is isolated from wintergreen.
Other phenols obtained from plants include thymol, isolated from thyme, and eugenol,
isolated from cloves.
2
Chapter 2: Physiochemical Properties
1. Molecular weight: 94.11
7. Solubility: Soluble in water (8.3 g/100 ml) and benzene; very soluble in alcohol,
chloroform, ether, glycerol, carbon disulfide, petrolatum, volatile and fixed oils, and aqueous
alkali hydroxides; almost insoluble in petroleum ether.
Flammability
The National Fire Protection Association has assigned a flammability rating of 2 (moderate
fire hazard) to phenol.
4. Extinguisher: For small fires use dry chemical, water spray, or regular foam. Use water
spray, fog, or regular foam to fight large fires involving phenol.
Acidity of phenol:
Although phenols are often considered simply as aromatic alcohols, they do have somewhat
different properties. The most obvious difference is the enhanced acidity of phenols. Phenols
are not as acidic as carboxylic acids, but they are much more acidic than aliphatic alcohols,
and they are more acidic than water. Unlike simple alcohols, most phenols are completely
deprotonated by sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
3
Oxidation:
Like other alcohols, phenols undergo oxidation, but they give different types of products
from those seen with aliphatic alcohols. For example, chromic acid oxidizes most phenols to
conjugated 1,4-diketones called quinones. In the presence of oxygen in the air, many phenols
slowly oxidize to give dark mixtures containing quinones.
Phenols are highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution, because the
nonbonding electrons on oxygen stabilize the intermediate cation. This stabilization is most
effective for attack at the ortho or para position of the ring; therefore, the hydroxyl group of a
phenol is considered to be activating (i.e., its presence causes the aromatic ring to be more
reactive than benzene) and ortho- or para-directing.
4
Picric acid (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol) is an important explosive that was used in World War I. An
effective explosive needs a high proportion of oxidizing groups such as nitro groups. Nitro
groups are strongly deactivating (i.e., make the aromatic ring less reactive), however, and it is
often difficult to add a second or third nitro group to an aromatic compound. Three nitro
groups are more easily substituted onto phenol, because the strong activation of the hydroxyl
group helps to counteract the deactivation of the first and second nitro groups.
Phenoxide ions, generated by treating a phenol with sodium hydroxide, are so strongly
activated that they undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution even with very weak
electrophiles such as carbon dioxide (CO2). This reaction is used commercially to make
salicylic acid for conversion to aspirin and methyl salicylate.
Phenolic resins account for a large portion of phenol production. Under the trade name
Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde resin was one of the earliest plastics, invented by American
industrial chemist Leo Baekeland and patented in 1909. Phenol-formaldehyde resins are
inexpensive, heat-resistant, and waterproof, though somewhat brittle. The polymerization of
phenol with formaldehyde involves electrophilic aromatic substitution at the ortho and para
positions of phenol (probably somewhat randomly), followed by cross-linking of the
polymeric chains.
5
Uses
- Phenol finds extensive use in the production of phenol formaldehyde resin which is a
thermoset
- It is used in industrial and decorative laminates, molding molds, textile auxiliaries and
varnishes.
- Both acetone and phenol are condensed in the presence of a catalyst to produce
bisphenol-A whish is used in the manufacture of epoxy resins, polycarbonate resins,
polyester resins rubber chemicals and fungicides.
- Phenol has a sweet odour that is detectable at 0.06 PPM, which enables it to be used
in an air freshener.
- Phenol is also a powerful disinfectant and bacteria killer.
- In industry, phenol is used as a starting material to make plastics, explosives such as
picric acid, and drugs such as aspirin.
- The common phenol hydroquinone is the component of photographic developer that
reduces exposed silver bromide crystals to black metallic silver.
- Other substituted phenols are used in the dye industry to make intensely colored azo
dyes
6
Chapter 3: List of all Manufacturing Process
Small quantities of phenol are isolated from tars and coking plant water produced in the
coking of hard coal and the low temperature carbonization of brown coal as well as from
the wastewater from cracking plants.
Therefore, alternative routes must be chosen, e.g. via halogen compounds which are
subsequently hydrolyzed or via cumene hydroperoxide which is then cleaved
catalytically.
The following process was developed as industrial synthesis for production of phenol.
Of the processes named, only the Hock process (cumene oxidation) and the toluene
oxidation is important industrially. The other processes were given up for economic
reasons. In the Hock process acetone is formed as byproduct.
This has not, however, hindered the expansion of this process; because there is a market for
acetone .New plants are now run predominantly on the cumene process.
7
Chapter 4: Description of selected process
Cumene Process:-
The Cumene – phenol process is based on the discovery of cumene hydeoperoxide and its
cleavage to phenol and acetone published in 1944 by H. hock and S.Lang. This reaction was
developed into an industrial process shortly after World War II by Distilliers Co. in the
United Kingdom and the Hercules Powder Co. in the United States.
Process:-
The raw material for the product phenol i.e. cumene is obtained by alkylation of Benzene
with propene using phosphoric acid or aluminium chloride as catalyst.
Two reaction steps form the basis of the production of phenol from cumene.
1. Oxidation of cumene with oxygen to cumene hydroperoxide:
Oxidation:-The oxidation of cumene with air or oxygen – enriched air is carried out in S.S.
(304) reactors R1 & R2 which work on bubble column principal. The reactors are connected
in cascade series to achieve an optimal residence time distribution. The oxidation is
performed at 90-130 ºC and 0.5 – 0.7 Mpa. It is carried out in an aqueous emulsion stabilized
by an alkali such as sodium carbonate in the 8.5 -10.5 pH range. The waste gas from the
reactor is purified by two stage condensation of organic impurities, which consist
predominanatly of cumene. Water is used as coolant in the first stage and refrigerant in the
second stage.
The oxidation is autocatalytic, i.e. the reaction rate increases with increasing hydroperoxide
concentration. The reaction is exothermic; ca. 800KJ are released per kilogram of cumene
hydroperoxide. The heat of reaction is removed by cooling.
8
Cleavage:-
Separation:-
The first distillation column is a multicomponent one in which acetone is obtained as a top
product and the bottom products are sulfuric acid, phenol, water. The next distillation column
is operated under vacuum in which the top product is the waste water and bottom product is
mainly phenol associated with sulfuric acid. In the next section which is a simple separator
the phenol is obtained as top product and sulfuric acid as bottom product.
9
Chapter 5: Material Balance
Basis: - 1 t/h of cumene in feed.
24 t/d of cumene.
Therefore,
O2/Cumene = 1 and Air/Cumene = 1/0.21 = 4.762
Now,
Stream 1:- 1t/p of cumene = 1000/120 = 8.33 kmol/h
Stream 2:- Molar flow rate of air = 11.5 * 8.33 = 95.8 kmol/h
Let the conversion be 25% in the reactor; the conversion in 1st reactor 17% & in 2nd is 8%.
Air in stream 3 = (95.8 * 17) / 25 = 65.144 kmol/h
= 65.144 * 28.84 kg/h = 1878.75 kg/h
10
= 24.218 * 28 = 678.11 kg/h
Now,
Stream 6 will contain O2, N2, vapour of cumene & cumene hydroperoxide.
Now,
Pt = 6 atm = Po2 + Pn2 + ∑ Pvi * Xi
Composition of liquid phase of cumene: X c
= F.R.of unconverted cumene/(F.R. of unconverted cumene + F.R. of cumene
hydroperoxide
= F.R. of feed–consumed / (F.R. of unconverted cumene + F.R. of cumene hydroperoxide)
= (8.33 – 1.4161)/ (6.9139 + 1.4161)
= 0.83
No2 = unreacted o2
= 13.68 – 1.4161
= 12.2639 kmol/h
Nc = Nt * Yc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 65.8951 * (180 * 0.83 / 760 * 6)
= 2.1589 kmol / h
Ncup = Nt * Ycup = 65.8951 * (0.17 * 5 / 760 * 6)
11
= 0.01228 kmol /h
In stream 8, assuming total condensation in C.W. condenser (for 1st trial calculation)
Xc = Yc / Yc +Ycup & Xcup = 1- Xc
Now, Po2+Pn2 /Pt = 4550.27 / 4560 = No2+Nn2 /Nt & No2+Nn2 = 51.46+12.2639
Therefore, Nt = (4560 * 63.7239) / 4550.27
Nc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 63.860 * (10 * 0.973 / 6 * 760)
= 0.136 kmol /h
Hence major amount of vapors are considered in C.W. condenser, so that revision in values
of Xi (for calculation) is not required.
In stream 8a, let the brine be the cooling medium in the next condenser to recover remaining
cumene vapor, so let temp = 5º C, Pvc = 1 mm Hg
Po2+Pn2 /Pt = 4559 / 4560 = 0.9997 = No2+Nn2 /Nt & No2+Nn2 = 51.46+12.2639 =
63.7239
Nt = 63.7239 / 0.9997 = 63.7378
Nc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 63.860 * (1 * 1 / 6 * 760) = 0.01397 kmol / h
12
Now, cumene & cumene hydroperoxide in stream 5 is ,
Unconverted cumene = unreacted cumene from 1st reactor – cumene consumed in 2nd reactor
= 6.9139- 0.6664 = 6.2475 kmol/h
O2 in stream 9 = O2 in 4 – O2 consumed
No2 = 6.437 – 0.6664 = 5.4706 kmol /h
N2 in stream 9 = N2 in 4
Nn2 = 24.219 kmol /h
Xcup = 1 – Xc =0.25
Po2+Pn2 /Pt = 4423.75 / 4560 = No2+Nn2 /Nt & No2+Nn2 = 5.7706+ 24.214 = 29.9896
13
Nt = (29.9896 * 4560) / 4423.75 = 30.9132
Nc = Nt * Yc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 30.9132 * (5 * 0.25 / 760 * 6 )
= 0.008259 kmol /h
In stream 11, assuming total condensation in C.W. condenser (1st trial calculation)
Xc = Yc/ (Yc + Ycup) Xcup = 1- Xc
Nc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 30.055 * (10 * 0.991 / 760 * 6)
= 0.06532
Hence major amount of vapour are condensed in C.W. condenser. So, the revision in values
of stream Xi is not required.
Im stream 12, let the brine be the cooling medium in the next condenser to recover remaining
cumene vapour, temp = 5º C Pvc = 1 mm Hg
Pt = Po2 + Pn2 + ∑ PviXi
6 * 760 = Po2 + Pn2 + 1 * 1 + 1 * 0
14
Therefore, Nt = 29.9896 / 0.997
= 30.0798
Nc = Nt * (Pvc * Xc / Pt)
= 30.0798 (1 * 1 / 760 * 6)
= 0.006596 kmol / h
Yc = Nc / Nt
= 0.006596 / 30.0798
= 0.000219
Dissolved gases will be released in flash vessel. Since the boiling point of cumene & cumene
hydroperoxide are higher their loss is negligible.
F=D+W & F * Zf = D * Xd + W * Xw
F=D+W
= 6.2275 + 2.0825
= 8.3095 kmol /h
F * Zf = D * Xd + W * Xw
8.3095 * 0.75 = D * 0.999 + W * 0.0000633
15
The heat removal from the strongly exothermic cleavage reaction (ca. 1680 KJ / Kg )
of cumene hydroperoxide is achieved by means of evaporation of acetone from the
reaction system.[1,2]
16
Water coming from scrubber along with the condensed acetone vapour considering
20% acetone soln with water = (874.2349 * 0.8) / 0.2
= 3496.9396 kg/h
In stream 18,
Phenol = 2.076 kmol/h
= 182.688 kg /h
H2SO4 = 31.55kg/h
= 0.3219 kmol/h
Partial pressure of water vapour in vapour mixture = v.p. * liq. Mole fraction
= 92.51 * Xw
= 92.51 * 0.8053
Pw = 74.4983 mm Hg
Operating pressure = 760 = Pt = Pac + Pw
Pac = 760 – 74.7983
= 685.5016
Na = 15.073 kmol/h
= 874.2349 kg/h
In stream 17,
Acetone = 15.073 kmol/h (same the previous)
= 874.249 kg/h
17
= 192.6364 kmol/h
= 3467.4556 kg/h
For stream 19 & 20,
Xd = 0.999 Xw = 0.00001551
F=D+W
F * Zf = D * Xd + W * Xw
260.824 = D + W (F is taken as the total moles in stream 18 i.e. feed for the dist. Col.)
F=D+W
F * Zf = D * Xd + W * Xw
Zf = 243.674 / (243.674 + 17.1495)
= 0.9342
Solving we get, W = 15.805 kmol/h D = (243.674 – 15.805) = 227.869 kmol /h
Therefore, the phenol + H2SO4 content is 15.805 kmol/h & assuming 100%
separation in decanter we get,
Pure phenol = 15.805 – 0.3219
=15.4831kmol/h
= 1455.41 kg/h
1 ton = 1000 kg 1.45 t/h = 1.45 * 24 = 34.9298 t/d ≈ 35 t/d
18
Material Balance Stream wise:-
19
2
69.5612
N2 678.132 24.219 6 78.3455
11.2654
Cumene 109.824 0.9152 9 2.9606
Cumene
hydroperoxide 1.255 0.008259 0.12873 0.0267
Total 974.8702 30.91306 100 100
Cumene
14 hydroperoxide 315.552 2.076 100 100
20
18 Phenol 182.688 2.076 3.6612 0.9041
Acetone 994.6429 17.149 19.93 7.4692
H2SO4 31.55 0.3219 0.63 0.1402
Water 3780.8896 210.049 75.773 91.486
Total 4989.7705 229.5959 100 100
21
Chapter 6: Energy Balance
The energy balance of a particular system can be achieved from the first law of
thermodynamics which states that total energy of an isolated system remain constant. The
first law of thermodynamics relates to the conservation of energy of energy.
Now let’s take equipment one by one and make energy balance each around.
Energy balance around 1st rector :-
The reaction is exothermic; ca 800 KJ are released per kilogram of cumene hydroperoxide.
Equation:-
Rate of energy in with feed stream (1 & 3) + Heat generated by reaction = Heat removed in
overhead condenser + rate of energy out with product stream + heat removed in external heat
exchanger.
Let the temp. of feed streams (1 & 3) and let the reference temp. For this energy balance is 25
ºC.
Since cumene hydroperoxide is a similar compound its latent heat = 330 KJ/kg
qc1 = ∑ miλi
= mcλc + mcupλcup
= 257.3916 * 330 + 1.8666 * 330
= 85555.01 KJ/h
22
mw cw ∆t = qc1
Cumene Properties
Almost an organic peroxides are photo and thermally sensitive because of the facile cleavage
of the weak oxygen – oxygen bond; ∆H = -125.6 to -184.2 kJ / mol (i.e. -30 to -44 Kcal /
mol)
Vapour pressure
KPa t ºC
1 33.22
20 99.08
40 119.790
80 143.50
200 180.68
23
= 86141.75 KJ/h
278
Rate of energy out with product stream Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT
298
Cpo2 = 8.27 + 0.000258 T -187700 / T2 cal / mol ºC
Cpn2 = 6.50 + 0.00100 T cal/mole ºC
Multiplying the above two equations with 4.186 to convert to KJ/mol ºC, we get
Cp avg = ∑ Yi Cpi
= Yo2 Cpo2 + Yn2 Cpn2
= 25.4564 * 0.1924 + 28.4146 * 0.8074
= 26.0569 KJ/mol ºC
278
Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT = 26.0569 * (278 - 298)
298
= -521.138 KJ/kmol * 63.73787 kmol /h
= -33216.2261 KJ/h
Cp c = 205 KJ/kmolºC
Cp cup = 205 KJ/kmol ºC
Cp avg = ∑ Yi Cpi
= 0.8297 * 205 + 0.1703 * 205
= 205 KJ/mol ºC
373
Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT = 205 * (373 - 298) = 15375 KJ/kmol * 8.316 kmol / h
298
= 127858.5 KJ/kg
Rate of energy in with feed stream (1 & 3) + Heat generated by rection = Heat removed in
overhead condenser + rate of energy out with product stream + heat removed in external heta
exchanger.
24
= 180784.024 + H ext
Hext = -8598.64 KJ/h
Circulation rate required of reaction mass in reactor1 , for rise in reaction temp 1 ºC
Therefore, mc clc ∆t = 8598.64 KJ/h
mc = 8598.64 / (1.642 * 1)
= 5236.6869
ms λs = 8598.64
ms = 8598.64 / 2201.6 = 3.905 kg /h
Rate of energy in with feed stream (5) + Heat generated by reactor = Heat removed in
overhead condenser + rate of energy out with product stream + heat removed in external heta
exchanger.
qc1 = ∑ miλi
= mcλc + mcupλcup
= 101.9856 * 330 + 1.2554 * 330
= 34069.53
mw cw ∆t = qc1
mw = 34069.53 / (4.186 * 40) = 203.4731 kg/h
278
Rate of energy out with product stream Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT
25
298
Cp avg = ∑ Yi Cpi
= Yo2 Cpo2 + Yn2 Cpn2
= 25.4564 * 0.1924 + 28.4146 * 0.8074
= 26.0569 KJ/mol ºC
278
Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT = 26.0569 * (278 - 298)
298
= -521.138 KJ/kmol * 63.73787 kmol /h
= -33216.2261 KJ/h
Cp c = 205 KJ/kmolºC
Cp cup = 205 KJ/kmol ºC
Cp avg = ∑ Yi Cpi
= 0.7494 * 205 + 0.2506 * 205
= 205 KJ/mol ºC
373
Hg = ∫ Cp avg dT = 205 * (373 - 298) = 15375 KJ/kmol * 8.316 kmol / h
298
= 127858.5 KJ/kg
Q = Hg – Hf / Hg - Hl
= (Hg – Hl ) + ( Hl – Hf ) / Hg – Hl
= λf + Cpf ∆t / λf
26
λf = 42240 KJ/kmol
Cpf = 205 KJ/mol ºC (as Cpc = Cpcup)
Qc = (R+1) * D * λc
D = 6.238 kmol/h
λc = 300 * 120 KJ/kmol
= 36000 KJ/kmol
mw clw ∆t = 346997.1456
mw = 346997.1456 / (4.186 * 40.32)
= 10361.8354 kg /h
Hf*F = m Cpmix ∆t
Cpmix = Cpc * Xc + Cpcup (1 - Xc)
= 205 KJ/kmol
Hf*F = 8.3095 * 205 * 10
= 17034.475 KJ/h
Hd*D = m Cpmix ∆t
= 6.238 * 205 * (99.08 -90)
= 11611.4132 KJ/h
27
= ms * λs
At t = 182.02 λs = 2005.9
ms = 399569.0791 / 2005.9 = 199.195 kg/h
The heat removal from the strongly exothermic cleavage reaction (ca. 1680 KJ/kg i.e.
0.011053 KJ/kmol of cumene hydroperoxide) is achieved by means of evaporation of acetone
from the reaction system.
Enthalpy of feed stream + heat of dilution of sulfuric acid + enthalpy of liquid stream +
energy evolved due to rxn = enthalpy of liquid product stream + gas stream leaving from the
top + heat removed in C.W. circulated.
Stream 18, at 60 ºC
Enthalpy of liquid product stream = ∑ m Cp ∆t
= (m Cp ∆t) acetone + (m Cp ∆t) phenol + (m Cp ∆t) aq. S.A.
Enthalpy of liquid product stream = (2.076 * 103.871*(60-25) + 17.149 * 124 *(60 – 25)
+ 210.3709 * 74.809 * (60 -25)) = 633205.665 KJ/h
28
= 160167.1672 KJ/h
∆ Hr = - 169635.1125 KJ/h
= ms λs
In this case rxn is not highly exothermic & it is necessary to remove all the acetone formed
during the rexn by vaporization to maintain the rxn temp.
Across Scrubber:-
Heat of the feed + Heat released in acetone formed = Heat required in condenser + Heat of
product stream.
160167.1672 + 35.082 = Qc + 40412.8547
Qc = 119789.3949 KJ/h
ln P = A – B / (T+C)
Component A B C
14.717 2975.9
Acetone Light Key 1 5 -34.5228
29
7 8
16.536 3985.4
Water Heavy Key 2 4 -38.9974
Since the conc. of H2SO4 is negligible so it will not create any influence on the vapour
pressure of water.
ln Pacetone = 14.7171 – 2975.95 / (377 - 345228) Pacetone = 414.7185 KPa.
Let υ = 3.0
L.H.S = -1.31466 ≠ 0 = R.H.S.
Let υ = 3.015
L.H.S = 0.1539 ≈ 0 = R.H.S.
Rm +1 = 6.09492
= 5.09492
R = 2 * Rm
= 10.18984
Qc = (R+1) * D * λc
D = 17.1495 kmol/h
30
λc = 17.1495 KJ/kmol at 56.4 ºC
Hf*F = ∑m Cp ∆t
= (2.076 * 103.87 * (104 - 58))phenol + (0.3219 * 74.8009 * (104 - 58))H2SO4 + (210.049 *
74.8009 * (104 - 58))water + (17.149 * 124.79 * (104 - 58))acetone
= 1754024.097 KJ/h
At t = 182.02 λs = 2005.9
ms = 8623720.757 / 2005.9 = 4298.963 kg/h
This column is perated under vacuum to avoid thermal cracking of phenol & to facilitate the
use of sat. steam as a heating medium in reboiler.
Let pressure drop in distillation column 20KPa, so op. press. at top = (18.289 * 760) /
101.325
= 137.1825 KPa.
At avg. temp. = (150 + 58.5) / 2 = 104 ºC
31
= 1 / (17.8428 -1) [0.999 / 0.9342 – 17.8428 (1- 0.999) / (1 – 0.9342)]
= 0.0474
As Rm is very small we take R=1;
Qc = (R+1) * D * λc
D = 227.869 kmol/h
λc = 2361.1 KJ/kmol
Hf*F : Residue of previous distillation column is used to preheat its feed stream.
Heat duty of preheater = [2.076 * 103.87 * (104 - 60)) phenol + (210.049 * 74.8009 * (104 -
60)) water + (17.149 * 124.79 * (104 - 60)) acetone] = (243.674 * (103.87 + 74.8009)) * (150
- t)
150 – t = 18.2837
t = 150 – 18.2837
= 131.716 ºC
At t = 182.02 λs = 2005.9
ms = 5545225.042 / 2005.9 = 2764.31956 kg/h
Utility Equipments:-
32
Water added in process = 3574.5224 scrubber + 3780.8896 reactor
= 7355.412 Kg/h * 1.25 = 9.19375 tph
III. Heat duty of cooling tower = (14817887.9 + 863.772) * 1.25 = 18523439.59 kg/h
18523439.59 / 12660.67 = 1463.069 TR
≈ 1500 TR
IV. DM water plant capacity = water req. for generation of steam + process
= 10 + 10 = 20 tph
33
Chapter 7: Design of Equipment
Process Design
• Type OF the Reactor = Continuous Stirred tank Reactor
• Design of Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor for 1 ton/hour of Cumene.
Technical Data: =
1. Reaction :-
2. Catalyst: - The 1st reaction is autocatalytic while in the 2nd reaction sulfuric acid is
used as catalyst i.e. 10% in Acetone soln.
Solution:-
ρlav = 1 / ∑ ( Wi / ρli )
Γ = V / Vo V = 0.09262 * 15 = 1.3893 m3
Let, H/D = 1 where H= Depth of liq. In reactor shell in meter & D = Inside diameter of vessel
34
Let the type of bottom head = Torisherical
Vworking = π / 4 Di 2 h + 0.084672 Di 3 + π / 4 Di 2 Sf
H = D = 1.5624 m
Consider provision of 20% extra space for vapour – liquid disengagement then actual height
of shell of reactor is H = 1.87488m
The heat removal from the strongly exothermic cleavage reaction (ca. 1680 KJ/kg i.e.
0.011053 KJ/kmol of cumene hydroperoxide) is achieved by means of evaporation of acetone
from the reaction system.
Enthalpy of feed stream + heat of dilution of sulfuric acid + enthalpy of liquid stream +
energy evolved due to rxn = enthalpy of liquid product stream + gas stream leaving from the
top + heat removed in C.W. circulated.
Stream 18, at 60 ºC
Enthalpy of liq. product str. = ∑ m Cp ∆t
= (m Cp ∆t) acetone + (m Cp ∆t) phenol + (m Cp ∆t) aq. S.A.
35
Cp acetone = 0.514 cal/g ºC = 0.514 * 4.186 * 58 = 124.79 KJ/kmolºC = 2.1516 KJ/kg ºC
Cp phenol = 1.105 KJ/kg ºC = 1.105 * 94 = 103.87 KJ/kmol ºC
Cp aq.S.A. = 0.9177 cal / g ºC = 0.9177 * 4.186 * (0.02 * 98 + 0.98 * 18)
= 74.8009 KJ /kmol ºC
= 3.8415 KJ/kg ºC
Considering 10% aq. H2SO4 soln = (10/98) / (10/98 + 90/18)
= 0.102 / 5.102
= 0.02
Enthalpy of liquid product stream = (2.076 * 103.871*(60-25) + 17.149 * 124 *(60 – 25) +
210.3709 * 74.809 * (60 -25)) = 633205.665 KJ/h
∆ Hr = - 169635.1125 KJ/h
= ms λs
In this case rxn is not highly exothermic & it is necessary to remove all the acetone formed
during the rexn by vaporization to maintain the rxn temp.
Now, μacetone at 60 ºC = 0.6 mPa.s
μcum. hyp. at 60 ºC = 2.8 mPa.s
μs.a. at 60 ºC = 3.1mPa.s
μwater at 60 ºC = 0.5 mPa.s
It is difficult to find the suitable correlation for the reaction mass side heat transfer coefficient
as the reaction is taking place. hi ca be governed by boiling coefficient or by convective film
36
coefficient. If flat blade 45º C turbine agitator is used to improve the reaction rate and to
improve the convective film heat transfer coefficient, then
hi = hnb or hic whichever is less.
hic = convective film coefficient, W/(m2 * ºC)
hnb = nucleate boiling coefficient, W/(m2 * ºC)
To calculate the convective film coefficient hic, let the tip velocity of turbine agitator
V = 200 m / min = π * Da * n ,
Cpmix = ∑ Cpi * Xi
= ( Cp * X )acetone + ( Cp * X )cup + ( Cp * X )aq. s.a.
= (2.1516 * 0.1993 ) + (1.105 * 0.0366) + ( 3.8415 * 0.76403 )
= 3.4042 KJ / kg ºC
K acetone = 0.17646 W / m ºC
K sul. acid = 0.5190 W / m ºC
K water = 0.62799 W / m ºC
K cup = 0.2598 W / m ºC
Kmix = ∑ Ki Xi
= (0.71646*0.07469) acetone + (0.5190*0.00140)s.a. + (0.91486*0.62799)water +
( 0.2598 * 0.0090 ) cup
= 0.590768 W / m ºC
37
Pr = Cpmix * μmix / Kmix
= ( 3.4042 * 0.5368 * 10 -3 * 10 3 ) / 0.59077
= 3.0932
Nucleate boiling coefficient for the boiling of azeotropic mixture can be determined by
mostinski’s equation.
hnb = 0.104 * Pc 0.6p (φ / A ) 0.7* [1.8 (P/Pc) 0.17 + 4 * (P/Pc) 1.2+ 10 * (P/Pc) 10]
φ = 169635.1125 KJ /h = 47.1209 * 1000 J/sec or W
hnb = 11845.94072 W / m ºC
Since convective film coefficient hi = 12369.5277 W / m ºC > hnb, hnb = nucleate boiling
coefficient is taken for heat transfer area calculations.
hi = 11845.94072 W / m ºC
Let thickness of reactor shell = 6.35 cm. (Assumed but it should be decided based on
mechanical design)
1/Uo = (1/ho) + (1/hod ) + (Do* ln (Do/Di) / 2*Kw ) + ( Do/Di) * ( 1/hi ) + ( Do/Di ) * (1/
hid )
38
% Excess heat transfer area ≈ 401.577 %
However, entire height of liquid pool ( hl= 1.5624) must be covered by plain jacket as shown
in fig to keep uniform temp. of entire liq. pool . Reaction temp. can be controlled by
controlling the flow rate of cooling water as shown.
Mechanical Design
Da = 0.5208 m
F = 1317.9 KgHm2 (Stress)
P = 1 atmosphere
Np = Pgc /9n3Da5
∴P = 1521.29 W
= 2.0669 hp
39
= 1054.3685 Kg / cm2
TM = 1.5 Te
= 25.2023 Kgf.m
Fs = Tm / Zp = 25.2023 / (Π d3 / 16)
d3 = (25.2023 X 16) / (Π X 1054.3685 X 104)
d = 0.02304 m
∴d = 23.04 mm
Bm = Fm * l
Bm = Fm X l
= 299.7434 Kgf.m
f = MelZ
3163.105 X 104 = 300.2722 / (Π d3 / 32 )
d3 = (300.2722 X 32) / Π X 3163.105 X 104
d = 0.04589 m
= 45.89 mm
40
δ = 12.3816 cm
N / Nc = 1.4465
Taking d = 6 cm
δ = 4.2368
∴ Nc = 145.3689
∴ N / Nc = 123 /145.3689 = 0.8461
= 84 %
∴δ = 2.28696
Nc = Critical Speed = 60 X 4.987 / (2.28696) ½
= 197.8612 rpm
N / Nc = 123 / 197.8612
= 0.6216
∴ 62 % of critical speed which is within the range & maximum stress induced in shaft
Blade material:
ƒ = Zm / Z & Z = Bt * Bw2 / 6
Bw = Da / 8
= 0.5208 / 8 = 0.0651
= 65.1 mm
41
= 71.513 kg
Internal design pressure = (max. op. pr. within head – min. op. pr. outside the head) *
1.1
= (1.033 – 0) X 1.1
= 1.1363 Kgf / cm2
Rc = I D of reactor R1 = 10 % of Rc
= 1.5624 m = 156.24 mm
= 1562.4 mm
W = 1 / 4 [3 + √(1562.4 / 156.24) ]
= 1.54
th = 1.06 th1
= 4.28
∴ OD = I.D. + 2 tn
= 1562.4 + 2 X 5
= 1572.4 mm
SF = 3 tn = 3 X 5
= 15 mm < 1.5 inch
SF = 1.5 inch = 38.1 mm
42
Height or length of head :-
OA = th + B + SF
∴ OA = 5 + 302.7528 + 38.1
= 345.8528 mm
Vol. within head is V1 + Π / 4 * Di2 * SF
V1 = 0.000049 Di3
Di = 1562.4 mm = 61.5118 in
Analytical Method:-
th1 = PR1W + CA
2FJ – 0.2P
P = 1.67 Pe
= 19.6644 Kgf / cm2
43
Blank dia. = OD + OD / 24+ 2 * SF + 2 / 3 * iCr + th
B = 302.4528 mm
V = V1 + Π / 4 Di2 *SF
= 11.4043 ft3 = 11.4043 * (0.3098)3 + (Π / 4 * (1.562)2 * 0.0762 )
= 2.3153 m3
Design of Shell:-
Pex > P
44
P = (52.9037 * 1.033) / 14.696
= 3.718 Kgf / cm2
Taking t = 25.4
Jacket Shell:-
Pext = 1 atm
ta = 8 mm
t = Actual thickness – CA = 8 – 1.5
= 6.5 mm
Do / t = 1729.2 / 6.5
= 266.031
Pext > Pd
45
∴ Now assuming tn = 25.4 mm
Do = 1764 = 73.8075
t 23.9
L = 0.75 *1874.88 = 0.79714
Do 1764
A = 0.0035
At = 446° F B = 9500 psi
Thickness required for external pressure > thickness required for internal pressure.
Therefore stiffing ring is used to reduce cost of equipment stiffing ring is attached on
the outer side.
B = PDo = 10.6392 * Do
t + AsL t + 400/200
Select ta = 8 mm ⇒ t = 6.5 mm
Do = 1713.2 + 2 * 8 =1729.2
B = 10.6392 X 1729.2 = 2164.38
6.5 + 2
At t = 446° F A = 0.00015 in / in.
46
Wt. of Jacket Shell = Π (Do2 – Di2) * H * ρ / 4
Π (1.7292 – 1.71322) * 0.75 * 1.87488 * 8000 / 4
=480.5159 Kg
Design of shell using stiffening ring. Stiffening ring is attached on the inside of shell.
Dimensions of stiffing ring: - W = 50 mm thick = 8 mm
As = W*T= 400 mm2
L1 = 200 mm
B = PDo = 11.7755 * Do
t + AS/ L1 t + 400/200
Select ⇒ ta = 8 mm ⇒ t = 6.5 mm
Do = 1562.4 + 2 * 8 = 1578.4
B = 11.7755 X 1578.4
6.5 + 2
= 2186.64
tn1 = PRcW + CA
2FJ – 0.2P
W = 1 (3 + √1713.2)
4 171.32
= 1.54
47
f = 1317.9 Kgf / m2 J = 1
CA = 1.5 X 2= 3 mm
∴ Take 14 mm thickness
Pent = 1 atm
tn1 = PRcW + CA
2FJ – 0.2P
P = 1.67 Pe
= 1.67 atm.
Thk ≅ 5 mm
∴ OD = 1D+2X5
= 1572.4 mm
B.D. = OD + OD / 24 + 2 SF + 2 /3 iCr
= 1572.4 + 1572.4 / 24 + 2 X 38.1 + 2 / 3 X 156.24
= 1818.276
V1 = 0.000049 Di3
Di = 1562.4 mm = 61.5118 in
∴ V1 = 11.4043 ft3
V = 11.4043 * (0.3048)3 + Π * 1 * 0.038 / 4
= 0.3529 m3
48
= 81.1424 + 545.425 + 103.8678 + 591.8626 + 480.5159 =1803.814 Kg X 1.2
= 2164.5768 Kg
∴ Cost of the vessel = 2164.5768 * 400 = 865827.2
P = 4Pw (H – F) + EW H = 1.87488 to 75
nDb n F = 0.75
P = 4Pw (H – F) / nDb + EW / n
49
= 1.744 – (1.5724) / 2
= 0.0858 m
h = 145 mm (assumed)
tanσ = 150 / 145-10
σ = 48
fmax = Max allowable bending stress
= 1575 Kgf / cm2
Take T2 = 4 mm
50
Chapter 8: Instrumentation and Process Control
Instrumentation and process control use for Phenol continuous stirred tank reactor is shown
in the figure.
Reaction taking place in this reactor is exothermic but heat of reaction is very low 0.0110526
KJ/mol & feed streams are introduced at room temperature. Hence to control the reaction
temperature 60 ºC saturated steam is supplied through jacket.
Following instruments and control methodology are used controlling process variable in the
reactor.
1) Temperature Controller
2) Pressure Controller
3) Liquid Level Controller
1) Temperature Controller
Temperature of Phenol reactor is control by controlling the flow rate of saturated steam to
the temp of Phenol reactor depend on Acetone to oxygen ratio in the reactor. Increase in
Acetone air ratio favors the low exothermic reaction.
Example: Increase in the temp of the reactor above the control valve will give the signal
to the control valve placed in the inlet line of the saturated steam to the carburetor and it
will increase flow rate of saturated steam. Increase flow rate of saturated steam will
increase the vaporization rate of Acetone and hence increase the Acetone to air ratio.
2) Pressure Controller
Reactor is operated at pressure close to atmospheric pressure. Hence pressure control (on
reaction side) is not required. Hence pressure indicator is provided on reaction side.
However acetone of rxn mass is continuously removed in a vapor form. Hence Pressure
Indicator & Pressure safety valves are provided.
51
Chapter 9: Plant Layout & Location
Plant layout:-
Plant layout can play an important part in determining construction and manufacturing cost
and thus must be planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may
arise. Since each plant differs in many ways and no two plants are exactly alike. There is no
one ideal plant layout. However proper plant layout in each case will include arrangement of
processing areas, storage areas, and handling areas in efficient coordination and with regard
to such factors as:
(1) Storage area should not be provided nearby the process if explosive material is
used, here Phenol & Cumene as stored at the topmost area quite away from
process area with a space for future expansion.
(2) Control room may be provided in the process area at sufficient height with glass
windows, so that plants become visible to the engineer sitting inside.
(3) Boiler and other utility should not be provided in the process area.Fuel for the
boiler should be near to the boiler.
(4) Three cooling towers are located in one line at the RH.S. along with the water
storage facilities with E.T.P. plant following it.
(5) Administrative office, marketing office, canteen should be provided on the other
side of the process area.
(6) Figure shows the suggested layout based on unit concept.
(7) Also, all the basic arrangements for road, security etc. are been incorporated in the
layout.
52
Plant Location:-
The location of plant is one of the prime factors in deplaning of new establishment. The
geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of an
industrial venture.
Location of market:
Product is used in laminates, varnishes, resins, air freshener, pharmaceutical, plastics, dye
Industries.
Market is easily available if plant situated near to this companies.
Utilities:
Location must have adequate water supply and ample supply of electricity should be
available at or new location economic, availability of fuel, coal or gas is also prime
consideration.
Suitable land:
Sufficient land should be available for proposed plant and for future expansion. The land
should be flat and should have suitable load bearing characteristics.
Effluent Disposal:
Full consideration must be given to the difficulties and cost of disposal of waste.
The plant must have separate disposal unit. Near plant location a centralized system for
drainage may be available.
Climate:
It is desirable to locate a plant where climate conditions are most favorable for ease of
operation for plant and personnel.
53
Chapter 10: Safety & Environment
Synonyms: Carbolic acid; Phenic acid; Phenylic acid; Hydroxybenzene; Phenol, fused;
Monohydroxybenzene; Phenol, solid
Hazards Identification:-
Lab Protective Equip: GOGGLES & SHIELD; LAB COAT & APRON; VENT HOOD;
PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER
Storage Color Code: White Stripe (Store Separately)
Ingestion:-Poison. Symptoms may include burning pain in mouth and throat, abdominal
pain, nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, muscular weakness, central nervous system
effects, increase in heart rate, irregular breathing, coma, and possibly death. Acute exposure
is also associated with kidney and liver damage. Ingestion of 1 gram has been lethal to
humans.
Skin Contact:-Corrosive. Rapidly absorbed through the skin with systemic poisoning
54
Effects to follow. Discoloration and severe burns may occur, but may be disguised by a loss
In pain sensation.
Eye Contact:-Corrosive. Eye burns with redness, pain, blurred vision may occur. May cause
severe damage and blindness.
Ingestion:-If swallowed, immediately administer castor oil or other vegetable oil. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Be ready to induce vomiting at the advice of
physician or poison control center. Castor oil (or vegetable oil) dosage should be between 15
and 30 cc. Get medical attention immediately.
Skin Contact:-In case of skin contact, immediately flush skin with large amounts of water
while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. As soon as possible, repeatedly apply
polyethylene glycol to affected area. Destroy contaminated clothing and shoes. Flush skin
with water for at least 30 minutes. It is very important to avoid rubbing or wiping affected
parts which would aggravate irritation and cause product dispersion. Continue treatment until
the burned area changes color from white to pink. Expect that this can take a long period of
time (20 minutes or more). The polyethylene glycol application should be done during
transportation to the hospital. If polyethylene glycol is not available, flush with water for at
least 30 minutes prior to going to hospital. Get medical attention immediately.
Eye Contact:-Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting
lower and upper eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention immediately.
Explosion:-Above flash point, vapor-air mixtures are explosive within flammable limits
noted above. Sealed containers may rupture when heated.
Fire Extinguishing Media:-Water spray, dry chemical, alcohol foam, or carbon dioxide.
Water spray may be used to keep fire exposed containers cool.
Special Information:-In the event of a fire, wear full protective clothing and NIOSH-
approved self-contained breathing apparatus with full face piece operated in the pressure
demand or other positive pressure mode. Structural firefighter's protective clothing is
ineffective for fires involving this material. Stay away from sealed containers.
Keep in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, ventilated area away from sources of
heat or ignition. Protect against physical damage. Store separately from reactive or
combustible materials, and out of direct sunlight.
55
Avoid dust formation and control ignition sources. Employ grounding, venting and explosion
relief provisions in accord with accepted engineering practices in any process capable of
generating dust and/or static electricity. Empty only into inert or non-flammable atmosphere.
All phenol operations should be enclosed to eliminate any potential exposure routes.
Containers of this material may be hazardous when empty since they retain product residues
(dust, solids); observe all warnings and precautions listed for the product.
Ecological Information:-
Environmental Fate:-When released into the soil, this material is expected to readily
biodegrade. When released into the soil, this material is not expected to leach into
groundwater. When released into the soil, this material may evaporate to a moderate extent.
When released into the soil, this material is expected to have a half-life between 1 and 10
days.
When released into water, this material is expected to readily biodegrade. When released into
water, this material is not expected to evaporate significantly. When released into water, this
material is expected to have a half-life between 10 and 30 days. This material has an
estimated bioconcentration factor (BCF) of less than 100. This material is not expected to
significantly bioaccumulate. When released into the air, this material is expected to be readily
degraded by reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals.
When released into the air, this material may be moderately degraded by photolysis. When
released into the air, this material is expected to have a half-life of less than 1 day.
Toxicological Information:-
Oral rat LD50: 317 mg/Kg; skin rabbit LD50:630 mg/kg; inhalation rat LC50: 316 mg/m3;
irritation data: skin rabbit, standard Draize, 500 mg/24H severe; eye rabbit, standard Draize 5
mg/30S rinse, mild. Investigated as a tumorigen, mutagen, and reproductive effector.
56
57
Chapter 12:Material Safety Data Sheet
General
Physical data
Stability
Stable. Substances to be avoided include strong oxidizing agents, strong bases, strong
acids, alkalies, calcium hypochlorite. Flammable. May discolour in light.
Toxicology
This material is a systemic poison and constitutes a serious health hazard. The risks of
using it in the laboratory must be fully assessed before work begins. Vesicant. Typical
MEL 2 ppm; typical OEL 1 ppm. Acute poisoning by ingestion, inhalation or skin
contact may lead to death. Phenol is readily absorbed through the skin. Highly toxic
by inhalation. Corrosive - causes burns. Severe irritant.
Toxicity data
ORL-HMN LDLO 140 mg kg-1
ORL-RAT LD50 317 mg kg-1
IPR-RAT LD50 127 mg kg-1
ORL-RBT LDLO 420 mg kg-1
SKN-RAT LD50 669 mg kg-1
58
Transport information
(The meaning of any UN hazard codes which appear in this section is given here.)
UN No 1671. Hazard class 6.1. Packing group II.
Personal protection
59
Chapter 12: Cost estimation
Plant capacity: 11550 TPA
= 1.25 x 490.75
= 61343750 Rs.
= 2600000 Rs.
60
= 1300000 Rs.
= 19500000 Rs.
= 19500000 Rs.
= 13000000 Rs.
• Manufacturing Cost:
61
(b) Operating Direct Supervision Electrical Labor
1. Depreciation:
62
Total sum of a & b = 21140000 Rs.
= 4107000 Rs.
= 2054000 Rs.
= 27300000 Rs.
= 6868800 Rs.
= 279000000 Rs.
• General Expenses:
= 5000000 Rs.
= 1365000 Rs.
= 819000 Rs.
63
Total general expenses = 7184000 Rs.
= 286184000 Rs.
= 233378500 Rs.
• Profit:
= 392816000 Rs.
= 13580000 Rs.
64
= 392800000 – 13580000
= 379220000 Rs.
= 151688000 Rs.
= 241100000 Rs.
• Profitability Analysis:
Annual investment after income tax = (net profit/ total capital investment) x 100
= (241100000/233378500) x100
= 103.308 %
• Pay out period without interest = (depreciable fixed capital investment/(avg. profit
+ avg. depreciation/yr.))
= 8 months.
65
• Break even analysis:
X = 0.22 yr.
= 3 months.(approx.)
Industries in India:-
66
- Herdillia Chemical Ltd. Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Kinjal chemicals A’ bad Gujarat
- Hindustan organic chemical ltd., Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Nile chemicals, Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Ultimate chemicals Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Bombay lubricants oil company, Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Lawrice labs, Mumbai, Maharashtra
- Rocky chemicals, Ankleshwar
- BL chemicals, Mumbai, Maharashtra
Industries in abroad:-
67
From the above process I can conclude that the process which I have selected is the most
appropriate and the most of the industry in India and abroad use the same for the
manufacturing of phenol as Acetone which has got a great market demand is also obtained as
co-product.
As phenol is also absorbed by skin on long exposure wear impervious protective clothing,
including boots, gloves, lab coat, apron or coveralls, as appropriate, to prevent skin contact.
Butyl rubber and neoprene are suitable materials for personal protective equipment. Use
chemical safety goggles and/or full face shield where dusting or splashing of solutions is
possible. Maintain eye wash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work area.
On the basis of material balance one can conclude that 1tph of cumene gives approx. 1.45
tph of phenol and 0.87 tph of acetone as product and co-product respectively.
Also, here the optimization is done at various places especially at stream 18 where the
residue of the previous distillation column is used to heat the feed to the reactor-3 and inturn
the residue is being cooled.
From the design point of view the thing which is clear is M.O.C. of th reactor which I have
designed should be S.S. 304 as phenol is corrosive and also sulfuric acid is being added as a
catalyst in the process. Also as there is a great density difference in that of sulfuric acid and
phenol an agitator is very much compulsory.
Lastly, the cost estimation shows that the process is quite a profitable process with
Payout period = 8 months
Break Even point = 3 month
Net Profit = 24.11 crore.
Thus, on the basis of above mentioned points if one is interested in manufacturing the Phenol
as a product then it’s a profitable venture.
68
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299-308
2. Ullmans “ Encyclopedia of industrial chemistry”, vol-A11 Page – 385-392
3. Perry J.H. “Chemical Engineering Hand book”, 6th Edition. Page-48-98
BOOKS
4. Dryden “Outlines of Chemical Technology”, 3rd edition, East West Press. Page. no –
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5. B.I Bhatt and S.M. Vora “ Stoichiometry” 4th edition ,Tata McGraw hill publisher
Page no-129-133
6. Coulsen Richard & R. K. Sinnot “Process Engineering and Design” Vol-6
7. S.B.Thakore & B.I. Bhatt “Process Engineering and Design, Tata McGraw hill
publisher Page. no- 720-725,219,
8. Edwin H Young & Cloyd E Brownell “Process Equipment Design”.Page.no- 246-
247.
9. S.B.Thakore & D.A.Shah “Illustrated Process Equipment Design”,1st edition, Atul
Prakashan.Page.no-79-82,232-240, 70-71.
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edition , Tata McGraw Hill Publisher.Page-No-95-102,150-209
11. C S Rao “Environmental pollution control engg.”, New Age International (P) Ltd.
OTHER
12.http://www.indianindustry.com/solvents/8311.html
13.http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reportinfo.asp?report_id=344110
14.http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/p1949.htm
69