AS CHEMISTRY UNIT 1 DEFINITIONS

Atomic Number, Z The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number, A The total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Atoms of the same element (same atomic number) but different mass
Isotopes
numbers (different numbers of neutrons)
Abundance (of Often quoted as % values, these are the proportions of each stable
isotopes) isotope in the naturally occurring elements
Relative Atomic The average mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12th the
Mass, Ar mass of a carbon-12 atom (exactly 12 units)
Relative Molecular The average mass of a molecule compared with 1/12th the mass of a
Mass, Mr carbon-12 atom (exactly 12 units)
Avogadro Constant, The number of 12C atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
L (Can be thought of as the number of particles in 1 mole of a susbstance)
The strict definition is: that amount of substance which contains the
same number of “entities” (atoms, molecules or “formula units”) as
The mole (mol) there are atoms of 12C in exactly 12 grams of that isotope.
Think of it as Avogadro’s Number of particles.
DO NOT CONFUSE IT WITH MOLARITY!
The concentration of a solution expressed in moles per cubic decimetre
Molarity (M)
(litre). Units are mol.dm-3, often written as M
The simplest (whole number) ratio of atoms of each element in a
Empirical Formula
compound
The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
Molecular Formula compound. (The molecular formula is always a whole number times the
empirical formula, e.g., C3H6 is 3 times CH2)
The actual mass of product obtained in a reaction expressed as a % of
the theoretical mass calculated from the balanced equation:-
Percentage Yield
% yield = actual mass of product × 100
theoretical mass
Calculated from the balanced equation for the reaction:-
Percentage Atom
% atom economy = mass of desired product × 100
Economy
total mass of reactants
Can also be known as “the equation of state for an ideal gas” and it
relates the volume, pressure, temperature and number of moles of gas:
Ideal Gas Equation PV = nRT (R is the Molar Gas Constant)
Remember that SI units must be used in calculations (Pa for pressure,
m3 for volume and K for temperature – add 273 onto OC)
A giant lattice of close-packed metal ions (+ve) surrounded by a “sea”
Metallic bonding of delocalised valence electrons. Electrostatic attraction of the cations
for the negatively charged “sea” of electrons is strong.
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons (+ve and –ve ions
Ionic bonding respectively). The strong electrostatic force of attraction between +ve
and –ve ions is called ionic bonding.
Covalent bond A pair of electrons shared between two atoms
Dative covalent Sometimes called a co-ordinate bond, this occurs when both electrons
bond for the covalent bond are provided by only one of the pair of atoms
 The power of an atom to withdraw electron density from a covalent
Electronegativity
bond
This is when electrons are not shared equally between two atoms with
Polar bond (dipole) different electronegativity, so that one end of the bond has a permanent
slight δ+ charge and one end has a permanent slight δ- charge
The molecule as a whole has a permanent uneven distribution of
electrons so that one end of it is always δ+ and one end is always δ-.
Polar molecule
Note that molecules with polar bonds can be non-polar overall, if they
(permanent dipole)
are symmetrical (e.g., CO2 is non-polar because it is linear, but H2O is
polar because it is V-shaped)
Fractional The physical separation of a mixture of liquids which have different
Distillation boiling points.
A mixture of compounds which have similar boiling points. (For
Fraction
hydrocarbons in crude oil, molecules with a similar number of C atoms.)
Hydrocarbon A compound containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen.
A family of carbon compounds with similar chemical properties because
they have the same functional group. Each member of the series differs
Homologous Series from the previous one by a CH2 unit and they all have the same general
formula. There is a gradual trend in physical properties (e.g., boiling
points) down the series.
The part of a molecule of a (carbon) compound which is responsible for
Functional Group the typical reactions of the homologous series to which the compound
belongs, e.g., alkenes have a C=C double bond.
Compounds with the same molecular formula, but with different
structural formulae, because the atoms are joined up in a different order.
Structural isomers
There are three types of structural isomerism: chain, positional and
functional group.
Compounds with the same molecular formula, but where the carbon
Chain isomers “backbone” of the molecule is of different lengths with side branches
(e.g. butane and methylpropane).
Compounds with the same molecular formula and the same length
Positional isomers carbon chain, but the substituent or functional group is in a different
place along the chain (e.g., 1-chloropropane and 2-chloropropane).
Compounds with the same molecular formula, but the molecules have a
Functional group
different functional group, e.g., C4H8 could be butene (alkene) or
isomers
cyclobutane (cyclic alkane).
The breaking up of larger (hydrocarbon) molecules into smaller, more
Cracking useful ones. It is an example of decomposition and can be done either
by high temperatures or using a catalyst.
Homolysis (or The equal splitting of a covalent bond where each atom in the bond
homolytic fission) receives one electron. This leads to the formation of free radicals.
Heterolysis (or The unequal splitting of a covalent bond where one atom in the bond
heterolytic fission) takes both electrons. This leads to the formation of ions.
Free radical A species (atom, molecule or ion) with an unpaired electron.
 AS CHEMISTRY UNIT 2 DEFINITIONS

First Law of
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change its form.
Thermodynamics
The enthalpy change for a reaction depends only on the initial and final
Hess’s Law states and is independent of the route taken from reactants to products.
(This is the First Law of Thermodynamics applied to chemical systems.)
Enthalpy change This is the change in heat content of a chemical system at constant
∆H pressure
Exothermic A change which gives out heat to the surroundings (∆H is –ve)
Endothermic A change which takes heat in from the surroundings (∆H is +ve)
Changes measured under standard conditions are for 100 kPa pressure
Standard conditions and a specified temperature (often 25OC / 298K). The symbol Ө is used
for this.
The normal state (solid, liquid or gas) of a substance under standard
Standard state conditions. (Water can be either pure liquid or water vapour at room
temperature and pressure, so the state symbol should always be used.)
Standard enthalpy The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a compound is formed from its
of Formation elements under standard conditions, with all substances in their standard
∆HfӨ states. By definition, ∆HfӨ for any element is zero.
Standard enthalpy The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is burned completely
of Combustion in pure oxygen under standard conditions, with all substances in their
∆HcӨ standard states. (Water is usually taken to be liquid here.)
This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a specific bond is broken
Bond Dissociation
(all molecules and atoms are in the gas phase).
Enthalpy ∆HD
Remember that bond breaking is an endothermic process.
This is the average enthalpy change when 1 mole of a particular type of
Mean Bond bond is broken (all species in the gas phase). The values are
Enthalpy approximate because an average is taken of all the compounds
containing that particular bond (e.g., a C-H bond).
This is the minimum energy required by particles when they collide to
Activation Energy
enable reaction to occur. It is a fixed value for any reaction.
This is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction, but which is
Catalyst (nature) not used up and can be recovered chemically unchanged at the end of
the reaction.
The catalyst provides an alternative route for the reaction with a lower
Catalyst (action)
activation energy.
A state of dynamic equilibrium is reached for reversible reactions when
Dynamic the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. Both reactions
equilibrium continue, but the concentrations of all products and reactants in the
mixture remain unchanged.
Le Chatelier’s A system at equilibrium will respond in such a way as to oppose any
Principle change made to it.
 This is the loss of electrons.
Oxidation
Oxidation number of an element increases (gets more positive)
Oxidising Agent A species which accepts electrons.
This is the loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons.
Reduction
Oxidation number of an element decreases (gets less positive)
Reducing Agent A species which donates electrons.
Redox Reaction Reduction and oxidation always happen together
A redox reaction where one element is simultaneously oxidised and
Disproportionation
reduced, e.g., chlorine in water (0 to +1 and 0 to –1)
Compounds with the same molecular formula and the same structural
Stereoisomers formula, but the atoms or groups are arranged differently in 3-D space.
There are two types of stereoisomerism: geometric and optical (A2).
Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural formula,
Geometric (or E-Z) but atoms or groups are fixed either on the same side (Z-isomer) or on
isomers opposite sides (E-isomer) of a bond which cannot rotate freely, e.g., a
C=C double bond.
Homolysis (or The equal splitting of a covalent bond where each atom in the bond
homolytic fission) receives one electron. This leads to the formation of free radicals.
Heterolysis (or The unequal splitting of a covalent bond where one atom in the bond
heterolytic fission) takes both electrons. This leads to the formation of ions.
Free radical A species (atom, molecule or ion) with an unpaired electron.
A species which can accept a lone pair of electrons (attracted to
Electrophile
electron-rich centres). [A Lewis Acid – see A2 Modules 4 & 5)
A species which has a lone pair of electrons which can be donated
Nucleophile
(attracted to electron deficient centres). [A Lewis Base – see A2]
This term refers to an activity that has no net annual carbon (greenhouse
Carbon neutral
gas) emissions to the atmosphere.
 A2 CHEMISTRY MODULE 4 DEFINITIONS (AQA)

The rate of change of concentration with time (mathematically d[X]/dt).

Rate of Reaction
Units are mol.dm-3.s-1 (moles per cubic decimetre per second)
This is the rate at the very beginning of the reaction when all the starting
Initial Rate
concentrations are known exactly.
Rate Equation A mathematical expression which relates the rate to the concentrations
Rate Expression of substances involved in the reaction
This is the multiplying constant in the rate equation, e.g.,
Rate = k [A].[B]2
Rate Constant, k
It has a constant numerical value as long as temperature does not
change. Rate constants increase as temperature increases.
This is the numerical power to which the concentration of a substance is
raised in the rate equation. The overall order is the sum of all the
Order of Reaction
individual powers, e.g., Rate = k [A].[B]2 is 1st order with respect to A,
2nd order with respect to B and 3rd order overall

Homogeneous A chemical system where all components in the mixture are in the same
system phase, e.g., all liquids or all gases
Heterogeneous A chemical system where components in the mixture are in different
system phases.
This is the ratio of the product concentrations raised to the powers of
their respective stoichiometric coefficients to the reactant concentrations
Equilibrium raised to the powers of their respective stoichiometric coefficients.
Constant, KC Stoichiometric coefficients are the balancing numbers in the chemical
equation. Concentrations must be in units of mol.dm-3
The numerical value of KC changes only with temperature.
This is similar to KC, except that partial pressures are used instead of
Equilibrium concentrations. This applies only for gases (since vapour pressures of
Constant, KP solids and liquids are negligible compared to gases).
The numerical value of KP changes only with temperature.
The sum of the individual partial pressures of gaseous components in a
mixture of gases equals the total pressure. Each gas exerts the same
Partial Pressure pressure as it would if it occupied the whole volume by itself. If the
total pressure is known, the partial pressure of a component is the total
pressure multiplied by its mole fraction: pA = PT × xA
This is the number of moles of a component divided by the total number
Mole fraction
of moles in the mixture, e.g., xA = nA / ntotal

A proton (H+) donor – a strong acid is one which is completely

Brønsted Acid
dissociated into ions (easily donates protons)
Brønsted Base A proton acceptor
The “other half” of the acid after the H+ has been donated, e.g., A- for
Conjugate Base acid HA (HA and A- are known as a conjugate acid-base pair). A strong
acid has a weak conjugate base and vice versa.
The species formed when a base has accepted a proton, e.g., BH+ for
Conjugate Acid
base B
pH This is defined as pH = -log10 [H+(aq)]
Ionic Product of Pure water dissociates slightly into H+ and OH- ions.
Water, Kw Kw = [H+] × [OH-] and has the value 1 × 10-14 mol2.dm-6 at 25OC
pKw pKw = -log10 Kw = 14
Acid Dissociation For an acid HA(aq) ⇔ H+(aq) + A-(aq) then
Constant, Ka Ka = [H+(aq)] × [A-(aq)] / [HA(aq)] Units are mol.dm-3
pKa This is -log10 Ka and so Ka = 10-pKa
Often a weak acid, the associated acid and its conjugate base have
Indicator
different colours, so respond to different pH values
For an indicator HIn(aq) λ H+(aq) + In-(aq) then
Kin = [H+(aq)] × [In-(aq)] / [HIn(aq)] and pKin = -log10 Kin
pKin When [In-(aq)] = [HIn(aq)] the colour is intermediate between the two
colours and at pH = pKin Effectively, pKin tells you the pH value where
the indicator is at its mid colour point.
This is the pH range over which the indicator changes colour. A guide
Indicator range is to use pKin ± 1. The ideal choice of indicator for a titration is one
which has a pKin value at the equivalence point.
This is the point (pH) at which stoichiometric amounts (equivalent
moles) of acid and alkali have reacted exactly with each other. It is the
Equivalence point mid point of the vertical section of the pH curve and is not always 7. It
is only at pH 7 for a strong acid-strong base titration. It is >7 for a weak
acid-strong base and <7 for a strong acid-weak base titration.
This is the point at which the indicator changes colour in a titration, i.e.,
End point when the pH = pKin. It may not be the same as the equivalence point if
the wrong indicator is chosen (see indicator range above)
A solution which maintains an approximately constant pH value for
small additions of acid or alkali. It is usually a mixture of a weak acid
Buffer solution
and its potassium or sodium salt for an acidic buffer or a mixture of a
weak base and its chloride salt for an alkaline buffer.
When a weak acid is titrated with a strong base, the region of the pH
curve just after base is added to just before the equivalence point is
called the buffer region. This is because there is a mixture of unreacted
Buffer region weak acid (HA) and its salt (A-). It is useful to remember that at the
half-equivalence point (where the acid has been half neutralised), the
concentrations of acid and salt are equal and the pH value at this point is
equal to the pKa value for the acid.

Molecules with the same molecular formula, but which have atoms
Isomers arranged differently in some way. There are two kinds, structural and
stereo.
Molecules with the same molecular formula, but with the atoms joined
up in different ways to different atoms. There are three types:
Structural Isomers • chain – the carbon skeleton is different
• positional – the functional group is in a different place in the chain
• functional group – the functional group is different
Here the molecular formula and the structural formula are the same, but
the atoms are arranged differently in space. There are two kinds:-
• geometric – atoms or groups are fixed on either the same or opposite
sides of a bond that cannot rotate freely, e.g., a double bond in
alkenes. The two forms are called cis- and trans- respectively
Stereoisomers
• optical – when a C atom in a molecule is asymmetrical, i.e., has 4
different atoms or groups attached, so that mirror images are
possible. The substance rotates the plane of polarised light, one
enantiomer rotates the light clockwise (+) and the other rotates it
anti-clockwise (-)
 A2 CHEMISTRY MODULE 5 DEFINITIONS (AQA)

Definitions of thermodynamic quantities from AS Module 2 are also required in this module and
are repeated here for completeness.

Enthalpy change This is the change in heat content of a chemical system at constant
∆H pressure
Changes measured under standard conditions are for 1 atmosphere
Standard conditions pressure (100 kPa) and 25OC (298K) and a concentration of 1M for
solutions. The symbol o is used for this.
The normal state (solid, liquid or gas) of a substance under standard
Standard state conditions. (Water can be either pure liquid or water vapour at room
temperature and pressure, so the state symbol should always be used.)
Standard enthalpy The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a compound is formed from its
of Formation elements under standard conditions, with all substances in their standard
∆Hfo states. By definition, ∆Hfo for any element is zero.
Standard enthalpy The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is burned completely
of Combustion in pure oxygen under standard conditions, with all substances in their
∆Hco standard states. (Water is usually taken to be liquid here.)
This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a specific bond is broken
Bond Dissociation
(all molecules and atoms are in the gas phase).
Enthalpy ∆HD
Remember that bond breaking is an endothermic process.
This is the average enthalpy change when 1 mole of a particular type of
Mean Bond bond is broken (all species in the gas phase). The values are
Enthalpy approximate because an average is taken of all the compounds
containing that particular bond (e.g., a C-H bond).
Standard enthalpy This is the enthalpy change for the production of 1 mole of gaseous
of Atomisation atoms (= ½ ∆HD for a diatomic molecule or ∆Hsub for the sublimation of
∆Hato an atomic solid like sodium or graphite)
The enthalpy change for the removal of one mole of electrons from 1
Standard enthalpy
mole of species in the gas phase, forming 1 mole of positive ions
of Ionisation
• 1st IE is for X(g) → X+ (g) + e-
∆Hio
• 2nd IE is for X+(g) → X2+ (g) + e-
The enthalpy change for the addition of one mole of electrons to 1 mole
Standard Electron
of species in the gas phase, forming 1 mole of negative ions
Affinity
• 1st EA is for X(g) + e- → X- (g)
∆Heao
• 2nd EA is for X-(g) + e- → X2- (g)
This is for ionic compounds and can be defined in two ways:-
• dissociation = separating the lattice into gaseous ions (endothermic)
Lattice enthalpy
e.g., NaCl(s) → Na+ (g) + Cl – (g)
∆HLo
• formation = forming the lattice from gaseous ions (exothermic)
e.g., Na+ (g) + Cl – (g) → NaCl(s)
This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous ions is dissolved in
Hydration enthalpy
water to form 1 mole of hydrated ions in solution, e.g.,
∆Hhydo
Na+ (g) → Na+ (aq) or Cl – (g) → Cl – (aq)
This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of an ionic solid is dissolved in
Solution enthalpy
enough water to ensure that the dissolved ions are well separated and do
∆Hsolo
not interact with each other

Spontaneous This is a change which has a natural tendency to occur without being
change driven by external influences. It can occur in one particular direction,
 but not the reverse unless conditions, e.g., temperature, are changed.
Entropy can be thought of as the degree of disorder in a substance.
Entropy, S (This is not technically correct. It is really related to the number of
ways of distributing energy amongst the particles in a substance.)
Entropy decreases as temperature decreases, so it is reasonable to
assume that at 0 K all substances will be perfectly ordered and have zero
Absolute Standard
entropy. It is possible, therefore, to define an absolute entropy for a
Entropy, So
substance at other temperatures. This is not possible for enthalpy,
where we can only consider enthalpy changes.
∆Go = ∆Ho - T∆So
The FREE energy change is effectively the energy which is available for
Gibbs Free Energy
useful work, after removal of that part of the total heat change which
change, ∆Go
goes into disorder of the system. ∆G o = 0 at equilibrium and must be
negative for any spontaneous change (feasible reaction).
These are measured for any redox system relative to the standard
hydrogen electrode. They are expressed as reduction reactions (the right
Standard Electrode
hand electrode, with the standard H2 electrode as the left hand
Potential, Eo
electrode). A more positive Eo means the system prefers to be in the
reduced form (i.e., behaves as an oxidising agent) and vice versa.
The cell potential is the potential difference between two electrodes
coupled together. This is often referred to as the electromotive force (or
e.m.f.) if the cell. Experimentally, this is measured using a high
Standard Cell
resistance voltmeter (so that virtually no current is drawn). To calculate
Potential, Ecello
the value of the e.m.f. of the cell, the two Eo values are combined and
the value must be positive for a spontaneous (feasible) reaction:-
Ecello = EoRHS - EoLHS

An element which has an incomplete d (or f) sub-shell in the element or

one of its common ions. Zinc is excluded from the first row of
transition elements, since the 3d sub-shell is full in both the element and
Transition element
its only ion Zn2+. (NB: This is the definition given by AQA. In other
books it is only elements which have a partially filled d or f sub-shell in
their common ions. This excludes Sc as well, since Sc3+ is like [Ar].)
Lewis acids & A Lewis base is an electron pair donor (has a lone pair of electrons). A
bases Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor (must have an empty orbital).
A ligand is an atom, molecule or ion which is able to donate a pair of
electrons to a metal atom or ion to form a dative covalent bond.
Ligands are, therefore, Lewis bases and nucleophiles. A unidentate
Ligand ligand can donate 1 electron pair. A bidentate ligand is a molecule
containing two atoms with lone pairs and which can make 2 bonds. A
polydentate (multidentate) ligand has several lone pairs to make
multiple bonds.
Complex ion A central metal ion with ligands attached by dative (co-ordinate) bonds.
This is the number of dative bonds made with the central metal ion. A
Co-ordination
polydentate ligand like EDTA makes 6 bonds, so the co-ordination
number
number is 6, even though there is only 1 ligand.
Bidentate and polydentate ligands making more than one bond into the
Chelate
same metal ion are called chelates.