Ch02 Manual Work 1

Work Systems and How They Work
Chapters:
2. Manual Work and Worker-Machine
Part I Systems
3. Work Flow and Batch Processing
4. Manual Assembly Lines
5. Logistics Operations
6. Service Operations and Office Work
7. Projects and Project Management
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Manual Work & Worker-Machine
Systems
Sections:
1. Manual Work Systems
Chapter 2 2. Worker-Machine Systems
3. Automated Work Systems
4. Determining Worker and Machine
Requirements
5. Machine Clusters

Three Categories of Work Systems
1. Manual work system
Worker performs one or more tasks without the aid
of powered tools (e.g. hammers, screwdrivers,
shovels)
2. Worker-machine system
Human worker operates powered equipment (e.g.
a machine tool)
Physical effort (less)
Machine power(more)
3. Automated work system

Process performed without the direct participation
of a human worker

A Work System as a Physical Entity

Manual Work System

Worker-Machine System

Automated System

Manual Work Systems
Most basic form of work in which human body
is used to accomplish some physical task
without an external source of power
With or without hand tools

Even if hand tools are used, the power to operate
them is derived from the strength and stamina of a
human worker
Hairbrush vs hair dryer
Of course other human faculties are also

required, such as hand-eye coordination and
mental effort
Pure Manual Work
Involves only the physical and mental
capabilities of the human worker without
machines or tools.
Material handler moving cartons in a warehouse
Workers loading furniture into a moving van without
the use of dollies
Dealer at a casino table dealing cards
Office worker filing documents
Assembly worker snap-fitting two parts together

Manual Work with Hand Tools
Manual tasks are commonly augmented by use
of hand tools.
Tool is a device for making changes to objects

(formally work units) such as cutting,
grinding,striking, sequeezing
Scissor, screwdriver, shovel
Tools can also be used for measurement

and/or analysis purposes
Workholder to grasp or poisiton work units

Manual Work with Hand Tools
Machinist filing a part
Assembly worker using screwdriver
Painter using paintbrush to paint door trim
QC inspector using micrometer to measure the
diameter of a shaft
Material handling worker using a dolly to move
furniture
Office worker writing with a pen

Repetitive vs. Nonrepetitive Tasks
Repetitive Task
Work cycle is relatively short (usually a few minutes
or less)
High degree of similarity from one cycle to the next
Nonrepetitive Task
Work cycle takes a long time
Work cycles are not similar
In either case, the task can be divided into

work elements that consist of logical groupings
of motions

Work Element Example:
Grommet : sealant like ring

REMINDER: The Pyramidal Structure of Work
Tasks consist of work elements
Work elements consist of basic motion elements
Required
time

Cycle Time Analysis
Cycle time Tc
ne
Tc = ∑ Tek
k =1
where
Tek= time of work element k, where k is used to
identify the work elements (min)
ne = number of work elements into which a
cycle is divided.

Example 2.1: A repetitive Manual Task
Current method: An assembly worker performs a

repetitive task consisting of inserting 8 pegs into 8 holes
in a board. A sightly interference fit is involved in each
insertion. The worker holds the board in one hand and
picks up the pegs from a tray with other hand and
inserts them into the holes, one peg at a time.

Current method and current layout:

Improved method and improved layout:

Use a work-holding device to hold and position the
board while the worker uses both hands
simultaneously to insert pegs.
Instead of picking one peg at a time, each hand will
grab four pegs to minimize the number of times the
worker’s hands must reach the trays.

Improved method
The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to 0.37 min.
% cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent
=(0.62-0.37)/0.62=%40

Production ratecurrent=1/0.62 min=1.61 units per min

(throughput)
Production rateimproved=1/0.37 min=2.70 units per min
% increase in R=(Rimproved-Rcurrent)/Rcurrent
=(1.61-2.70)/1.61=%68
It is important to design the work cycle so as to minimize

the time required to perform it.
Of course there are many alterantive ways to perform a

given task. Our focus is on the best one.
One Best Method Principle
Of all the possible methods that can be used to perform a
given task, there is one optimal method that minimizes the
time and effort required to accomplish it
Attributed to Frank Gilbreth
A primary objective in work design is to determine the one
best method for a task, and then to standardize

it!

One Best Method Principle
This ‘One Best’ refers to:

1. an average worker with a moderate level
of skill,
2. operating under normal working conditions
3. with nominal material quality and
4. tool/equipment availability

Cycle Time Variations
Once the method has been standardized, the
actual time to perform the task is a variable
because of:
Differences in worker performance
Mistakes, failures and errors
Variations in starting work units
Variations in hand and body motions
Extra elements not performed every cycle
Differences among workers
The learning curve phenomenon
Worker Performance
Defined as the pace (tempo) or relative speed
with which the worker does the task.
As worker performance increases, cycle time

decreases
From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable

for worker performance to be high
What is a reasonable performance/pace to

expect from a worker in accomplishing a given
task?
What is a reasonable performance
for a worker?

Normal Performance (normal pace)
A pace of working that can be MAINTAINED by a properly
trained average worker throughout an entire work shift
without harmful short-term or long-term effects on the
worker’s health or physical well-being

The work shift is usually 8 hours, during

which periodic rest breaks are allowed
Normal performance = 100%

performance
Faster pace > 100%, slower pace < 100%
Common benchmark of normal

performance:
Walking at 3 mi/hr (~4.83 km/hr)
The normal pace refers to the pace
of worker while actually working
(does not include or relate to rest
periods)

Normal Time
The time to complete a task when working at
normal performance
Actual time to perform the cycle depends on

worker performance
Tc = Tn / Pw
where
Tc = cycle time,
Tn = normal time,
Pw = worker performance (or pace)
Example 2.2: Normal Performance
Given: A man walks in the early morning for

health and fitness. His usual route is 1.85 miles.
The benchmark of normal performance = 3
mi/hr.
Determine:
(a) how long the route would take at normal
performance
(b) the man’s performance when he completes
the route in 30 min.

Example 2.2: Solution
(a) At 3 mi/hr, time = 1.85 mi / 3 mi/hr
= 0.6167 hr = 37 min
(b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc

Tc 37 min Pw = 37 min / 30 min = 1.233 = 123.3 %
Pw = = = 1.233
Tn 30 min
or an alternative approach in (b):
Using v = 1.85 mi / 0.5 hr = 3.7 mi/hr
Vc 3.7
Pw = = = 1.233 Pw = 3.7 mi/hr / 3.0 mi/hr = 1.233
Vn 3.0
If worker performance > 100%, then the time required to

complete the cycle will be less than normal time.
If worker performance < 100%, then the time required to

complete the cycle will be greater than normal time.
Standard Performance
Same as normal performance, but
acknowledges that periodic rest breaks must
be taken by the worker
Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the

work shift
Lunch breaks (1/2 or 1 hour)
usually not counted as part of work shifts
Shorter rest beraks (15 mins)
usually counted as part of work shifts

Rest Breaks in a Work Shift
A typical work shift is 8 hours (8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.
with one hour lunch break)
E.g. In one country work time is defined as 45 hours
a week
(so 8:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. with one hour lunch break,
provided that workers work for 5 days)
The shift usually includes one rest break in the morning

and another in the afternoon.
The employers allows these breaks, because they know

that the overall productivity of a worker is higher if rest
breaks are allowed.
The rest periods are not included in daily work hours in
which employers are paid for.
Standard Performance
Of course other interruptions and delays also
occur during the shift
Machine breakdowns
Receiving instructions from the foreman
Telephone calls
Bathroom/toilette breaks etc.

Personal time, Fatigue, Delay (PFD)
Allowance
To account for the delays and rest breaks, an
allowance is added to the normal time in order
to determine allowed time for the worker to
perform the task throughout a shift
Personal time (P)

Bathroom breaks, personal phone calls
Fatigue (F)
Rest breaks are intended to deal with fatigue
Delays (D)
Interruptions, equipment breakdowns
Standard Time
Defined as the normal time but with an allowance added
into account for losses due to personal time, fatigue, and
delays
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
where
Tstd = standard time,
Tn = normal time,
Apfd = PFD allowance factor
Also called the allowed time
Now we are confident to say that a worker working at

100% performance during 8 hours CAN ACCOMPLİSH
a task of 8 hour standard time.
Irregular Work Elements
Elements that are performed with a frequency
of less than once per cycle
Examples:
Changing a tool
Exchanging parts when containers become full
Irregular elements are prorated into the regular

cycle according to their frequency

Example 2.3: Determining Standard Time
and Standard Output
Given: The normal time to perform the regular

work cycle is 3.23 min. In addition, an irregular
work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is
performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance
factor is 15%.
Determine
(a) the standard time
(b) the number of work units produced during
an 8-hr shift if the worker's pace is consistent
with standard performance.
(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5

= 3.48 min
Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15)
= 4.00 min
(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr
shift
Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units
Normal time of a task involves normal times

for regular and irregular work elements
Example 2.4: Determining Lost Time due
to the Allowance Factor
Given: An allowance factor of 15% is used.
Determine the anticipated amount of time lost

per 8-hour shift.
Solution:
8.0 hour =(actual time worked) (1+0.15)
Actual time worked = 8/ 1.15 = 6.956 hr
Time lost = 8.0 – 6.956 = 1.044 hr

Example 2.5: Production rate when
worker performance exceeds 100%
Given: Tsd=4.00 min. The worker’s average

performance during an 8-hour shift is 125%
and the hours actually worked is 6.956 hr
(which corresponds to the 15% allowance
factor).
Determine daily production rate.

Based on normal time Tn=3.48 min, the actual

cycle time with a worker performance of 125%,
Tc=3.48 / 1.25 = 2.78 min.
Assuming one work unit is produced each

cycle, the corresponding daily production rate,
Rp=6.956(60)/2.78=150 work units
OR
125% of 120 units (we know that from Exercise
2.3.b) at 100% performance = 150 units

Standard Hours and Worker
Efficiency
Two (three) common measures of worker
productivity used in industry
Standard hours – represents the amount of work
actually accomplished during a given period (shift,
week)
Quantity of work units (in terms of time) produced

Hstd = Q Tstd
where
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Q = quantity of work units completed during the
period, pc
Tstd =standard time per work unit, hr/pc

Standard Hours and Worker
Efficiency
Two (three) common measures of worker
productivity used in industry
Worker efficiency – work accomplished during the

shift expressed as a proportion of shift hours
Ew = Hstd / Hsh
where
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Ew =worker efficiency, normally expressed as a
percentage, hr
Hsh =number of shift hours, hr

Example 2.6: Standard hours and worker
efficiency
Given: The worker performance of 125% in the previous

example.
Determine:
(a) number of standard hours produced
(b) worker efficiency
Solution:
(a) Hstd=150(4 min)=600 min= 10.0 hr
(Hstd = Q Tstd)
(b) Ew = 10hr / 8 hr =125 %
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
efficiency
Note that worker efficiency is found to be

equal to the worker performance (rate).
What are the reasons for that?
The number of hours actually worked is consistent

with 15% allowance factor.
The entire work cycle consists of manual labor.

So, worker efficiency=worker performance (rate)

efficiency as affected by hours actually worked
Given: The worker performance of 125%, actual hours

worked is 7.42 hr.
Determine:
(a) number of pieces produced,
(b) number of standard hours accomplished,
(c) the worker’s efficiency
Solution:
(a) Tc= 2.78 (prev. example), Q=7.42(60)/2.78=160
units
(b) Hstd=160(4 min)=640 min= 10.67 hr
(c) Ew = 10.67hr / 8 hr =133.3 %

efficiency as affected by hours actually worked
Note that in this example worker efficiency, Ew, and

worker pace, Pw, are not equivalent.
The reason for that

Actual work hours of that labor (7.42–given in the
example) is greater than the allowed time (or anticipated
work time, which is found to be 6.956 hr in Example 2.4)
That is, on that specific day, the worker delays (8-

7.42=0.58hr) and the rest breaks are less than the
anticipated time loss due to PDF allowances (1.044hr).
It is better to calculate worker efficiency by using actual

outputs (in terms of hour).
More on Worker Efficiency
Worker efficiency is commonly used to evaluate
workers in industry.
In many incentive wage payment plans, the worker’s

earnings are based on
worker’s efficiency, Ew,
or
the number of standard hours accomplished, Hstd.
Either one of these two measures can be derived from

the other one. Thus, they are equivalent.


Ch02 Manual Work 1

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Work Systems and How They Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

3. Automated work system

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 With or without hand tools

 Of course other human faculties are also

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Tool is a device for making changes to objects

 Tools can also be used for measurement

 Workholder to grasp or poisiton work units

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 In either case, the task can be divided into

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Grommet : sealant like ring

 Tasks consist of work elements

 Work elements consist of basic motion elements

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Current method: An assembly worker performs a

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Current method and current layout:

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Improved method and improved layout:

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to 0.37 min.

 % cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Production ratecurrent=1/0.62 min=1.61 units per min

 It is important to design the work cycle so as to minimize

 Of course there are many alterantive ways to perform a

 Attributed to Frank Gilbreth

 A primary objective in work design is to determine the one

best method for a task, and then to standardize

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 This ‘One Best’ refers to:

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 As worker performance increases, cycle time

 From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable

 What is a reasonable performance/pace to

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 The work shift is usually 8 hours, during

 Normal performance = 100%

 Common benchmark of normal

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 Actual time to perform the cycle depends on

 Given: A man walks in the early morning for

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

(b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc

 If worker performance > 100%, then the time required to

 If worker performance < 100%, then the time required to

 Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

 The shift usually includes one rest break in the morning

 The employers allows these breaks, because they know

 Receiving instructions from the foreman

 Bathroom/toilette breaks etc.

 Personal time (P)

 Also called the allowed time

With or without hand tools

Of course other human faculties are also

Tool is a device for making changes to objects

Tools can also be used for measurement

Workholder to grasp or poisiton work units

In either case, the task can be divided into

Tasks consist of work elements

Work elements consist of basic motion elements

Current method: An assembly worker performs a

Current method and current layout:

Improved method and improved layout:

The cycle time is reduced from 0.62 min to 0.37 min.

% cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent

Production ratecurrent=1/0.62 min=1.61 units per min

It is important to design the work cycle so as to minimize

Of course there are many alterantive ways to perform a

Attributed to Frank Gilbreth

A primary objective in work design is to determine the one

This ‘One Best’ refers to:

As worker performance increases, cycle time

From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable

What is a reasonable performance/pace to

The work shift is usually 8 hours, during

Normal performance = 100%

Common benchmark of normal

Actual time to perform the cycle depends on

Given: A man walks in the early morning for

If worker performance > 100%, then the time required to

If worker performance < 100%, then the time required to

Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the

The shift usually includes one rest break in the morning

The employers allows these breaks, because they know

Receiving instructions from the foreman

Bathroom/toilette breaks etc.

Personal time (P)

Also called the allowed time

Now we are confident to say that a worker working at

Irregular elements are prorated into the regular

Given: The normal time to perform the regular

Normal time of a task involves normal times

Given: An allowance factor of 15% is used.

Determine the anticipated amount of time lost

Given: Tsd=4.00 min. The worker’s average

Determine daily production rate.

Based on normal time Tn=3.48 min, the actual

Assuming one work unit is produced each

Quantity of work units (in terms of time) produced

Worker efficiency – work accomplished during the

Given: The worker performance of 125% in the previous

Note that worker efficiency is found to be

What are the reasons for that?

The number of hours actually worked is consistent

The entire work cycle consists of manual labor.

Given: The worker performance of 125%, actual hours

Note that in this example worker efficiency, Ew, and

The reason for that

That is, on that specific day, the worker delays (8-

It is better to calculate worker efficiency by using actual

In many incentive wage payment plans, the worker’s

Either one of these two measures can be derived from