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ABSTRACT
CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION 3
• HISTORY 4
• TYPES OF HYBRID 7
SERIES 7
PARALLEL 9
FULL HYBRID 10
• HYBRID COMPONENTS 17
• HYBRID STRUCTURE 19
• BENEFITS 26
• INCENTIVES 27
• TRADE OFFS 28
• CONCLUTION 31
• REFERENCE 32
INTRODUCTION
A hybrid vehicle (HV) is a vehicle using an on-board rechargeable
energy storage system (RESS) and a fuelled power source for vehicle
propulsion. The HV pollutes less and uses less fuel. The different propulsion
power systems may have common subsystems or components. The HV
provides better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle because the engine
is smaller and may be run at speeds providing more efficiency.
The term most commonly refers to
petroleum-electric hybrid vehicles, also called Hybrid-electric vehicle
(HEV) which use internal combustion engines and electric batteries to power
electric motors. Modern mass-produced hybrids prolong the charge on their
batteries by capturing kinetic energy via regenerative braking. As well, when
cruising or in other situations where just light thrust is needed, "full" hybrids
can use the combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning a generator
(often a second electric motor[1]) to either recharge the battery or directly
feed power to an electric motor that drives the vehicle. This contrasts with
all-electric cars which use batteries charged by an external source such as the
grid, or a range extending trailer. Nearly all hybrids still require gasoline and
diesel as their sole fuel source though other fuels such as ethanol or plant
based oils have also seen occasional use. A number of other hybrid vehicles
use hydrogen fuel.
The term hybrid when used in relation with cars
also has other uses. Prior to its modern meaning of hybrid propulsion, the
word hybrid was used in the United States to mean a vehicle of mixed
national origin; generally, a European car fitted with American mechanical
components. This meaning has fallen out of use. In the import scene, hybrid
was often used to describe an engine swap. Some have also referred to
flexible-fuel vehicles as hybrids because they can use a mixture of different
fuels — typically gasoline and ethanol alcohol fuel.
HISTORY
TYPES OF HYBRID
Series
In a series design, the internal combustion engine is
not directly connected to the drivetrain at all, but powers an electrical
generator instead. This is similar to the operation of diesel-electric train
locomotives, except that as of 2006, the overwhelming majority of diesel-
electric locomotives do not store auxiliary power in batteries for use in
propulsion, and thus can not be called "hybrid" vehicles. This may change if
capacitators (Super or Ultracaps) are used to act as short term storage which
is the case for shunting locomotives in the US by Rail Power Technologies
[1] and motorized units at JR-East. A series hybrid is similar to an electric
car which is recharged by electricity from a stationary fossil fuel power
plant, except that the power plant is carried on board.
Electricity from the generator is fed to the motor or motors that actually
move the car, and excess energy can be used to charge batteries. When large
amounts of power are required, electricity comes from both the battery pack
and the engine-generator section. Because electrical motors can operate quite
efficiently over a wide range of speeds, this design removes or reduces the
need for a complex transmission. The internal combustion engine can also be
finely tuned to operate at its most efficient speed whenever it is running, for
a great gain in efficiency. Separate small electric motors installed at each
wheel are featured in some prototypes and concept cars; this allows the
possibility of easily controlling the power delivered to each wheel, and
therefore simplifies traction control, all wheel drive, and similar features.
The advantage of this type of hybrid is the flexibility
afforded by the lack of a mechanical link between the internal combustion
engine and the wheels. A weakness of a series hybrid system, however, is
that series hybrids require separate motor and generator portions, which can
be combined in some parallel hybrid designs; the combined efficiency of the
motor and generator will be lower than that of a conventional transmission,
offsetting the efficiency gains that might otherwise be realized. Additionally,
the power delivered to the wheels by a series hybrid is limited by the electric
motor(s) (which can be overloaded for a limited time however), whereas in a
parallel hybrid both the combustion engine and the electric motor can
provide power to the wheels.
The use of one motor per wheel eliminates the
conventional mechanical transmission elements (gearbox, transmission
shafts, differential). However, when the motor is integrated into the wheel, it
increases the unsprung masses and for better ride characteristics the motors
may be fixed to the vehicle body, which requires the use of flexible
couplings to the wheels. Also, mechanical brakes need to be fitted to the
wheels for safety reasons. The use of wheel motors is particularly interesting
in vehicles such as urban buses, where it may facilitate the adoption of an
all-low-floor design, as well as in all-wheel drive vehicles such as military
vehicles (up to 8x8) where it simplifies mechanical design.
Series hybrids are the most efficient in driving cycles
that incorporate many stops and starts, such as for delivery vehicles, urban
buses or stop and go city driving. In such vehicle use, the combustion engine
can deliver power at a constant and more efficient rate. For long-distance
highway driving however, the addition of losses in the electric transmission
comes forward and a parallel hybrid may be more advisable.
Fuel cell vehicles are often fitted with a battery or supercapacitor to deliver
peak acceleration power and to reduce the size and power constraints on the
fuel cell; this is effectively also a series-style setup.
Parallel
Parallel systems, which are most commonly produced at present,
connect both the electrical and internal combustion systems to the
mechanical transmission. They can be subcategorized depending upon how
balanced the different portions are at providing motive power. In some cases,
the internal combustion engine is the dominant portion and is used for
primary power, with the motor turning on only when a boost is needed.
Others can run with just the electric system operating alone. Most designs
combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often situated
between the internal combustion engine and the transmission, in the location
of the flywheel, replacing both the conventional starter motor and the
generator or alternator. A large battery pack is required, providing a higher
voltage than the normal automotive 12 volts. Accessories such as power
steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors, so that they
continue to function when the internal combustion engine is stopped; this
offers the possibility of further efficiency gains, by modulating the electrical
power delivered to these systems, rather than having them run directly from
the engine at a speed which depends on engine speed.
Full hybrid
Input-split Hybrid
Combined-Split Hybrid
Assist hybrid
Mild hybrid
Plug-in hybrid
The same is also true for the strong hybrid. It is equipped with a
stronger power motor of up to 75 KW, in some cases with even more power.
This results in a greater torque of up to 400 Newton meters from standstill,
as well as potential fuel savings of more than 20 percent on average. The
system furthermore allows for driving shorter distances with just electrical
power and thus zero emissions locally.
Hybrid Components
Hybrid cars contain the following parts:
• Gasoline engine - The hybrid car has a gasoline engine much like the
one you will find on most cars. However, the engine on a hybrid will
be smaller and will use advanced technologies to reduce emissions
and increase efficiency.
• Fuel tank - The fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for
the gasoline engine. Gasoline has a much higher energy density than
batteries do. For example, it takes about 1,000 pounds of batteries to
store as much energy as 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gasoline.
• Electric motor - The electric motor on a hybrid car is very
sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well
as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can draw energy from
the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow
the car down and return energy to the batteries.
• Generator - The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts
only to produce electrical power. It is used mostly on series hybrids.
• Batteries - The batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device
for the electric motor. Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can
only power the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can
put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.
• Transmission - The transmission on a hybrid car performs the same
basic function as the transmission on a conventional car. Some
hybrids, like the Honda Insight, have conventional transmissions.
Others, like the Toyota Prius, have radically different ones, which
we’ll talk about later.
HYBRID STRUCTURE
Locomotives
Taxicabs
Two-wheeled vehicles
ICE-ICE Hybrid
over 100 horsepower (75 kW). However, the amount of power needed for a
typical 3,000 pound (1,350 kg) vehicle may be less than 5 horsepower (3.7
kW) when running 60 mph (95 km/h) on level roads (one term for this is
"Road-Horsepower"). It is very inefficient to run a large spark-ignition (i.e.
gasoline) engine under such a light load. So, in an ICE-ICE hybrid a second
small motor might be used at cruising speeds. This might be wired into the
common electric cruise control which many cars already have. The small
motor's horsepower could be chosen with a goal of ability to allow the
vehicle to climb slopes up to five degrees since few roads are truly level for
even short distances. For simplicity, the small motor could have a single
fixed gear ratioed to run most efficiently at a defined speed range such as
60–75 mph (95–120 km/h).
Gasoline
Diesel
Hybrid fuel
Human power
pedal power. Such machines include electric bicycles and mopeds, which
may often be simultaneously propelled by human and engine power. More
sophisticated constructions are three wheeled and provide at least a
windscreen (ZAP EPOD, TWIKE).
Benefits
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Benefits of the hybrid design include:
• The internal-combustion engine in a hybrid vehicle is much smaller,
lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional vehicle, because
the engine can be sized for slightly above average power demand rather than
peak power demand. A standard combustion engine is required to operate
over a range of speed and power, yet its highest efficiency is in a narrow
range of operation—in a hybrid vehicle, the engine operates within its range
of highest efficiency. The power curve of electric motors is better suited to
variable speeds and can provide substantially greater torque at low speeds
compared with internal-combustion engines.
• Like many electric cars, but in contrast to conventional vehicles,
braking in a hybrid is controlled in part by the electric motor which can
recapture part of the kinetic energy of the car to partially recharge the
batteries. This is called regenerative braking and one of the reasons for the
high efficiency of hybrid cars. In a conventional vehicle, braking is done by
mechanical brakes, and the kinetic energy of the car is wasted as heat.
• Hybrids are much more energy efficient than traditional internal
combustion engine vehicles because they generally provide greater fuel
economy. This statistic has a major implication for the reducing petroleum
consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide
• Reduced wear and tear on the gasoline engine.
• Reduced wear on brakes from the regenerative braking system use.
• Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of electric
engine at low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction and beneficial
noise health effects. Note, however, that this is not always an advantage; for
example, people who are blind or visually-impaired, and who rely on
vehicle-noise while crossing streets, find it more difficult to do safely.
• Reduced air pollution emissions due to less fuel consumed per travel
mile, leading to improved human health with regard to respiratory and other
illness. In fact composite driving tests indicate total air pollution of carbon
Incentives
In order to encourage the purchase of hybrid
vehicles, several incentives have been made into law:
United States
• Starting January 1, 2006, the purchase of hybrid cars qualifies for a
tax credit up to $3400 on the purchaser's Federal Income Taxes. The tax
credit is to be phased out two calendar quarters after the manufacturer
reaches 60,000 new cars sold in the following manner: it will be reduced to
50% ($1700) if delivered in either the third or fourth quarter after the
threshold is reached, to 25% ($850) in the fifth and sixth quarters, and 0%
thereafter.
• Hybrid purchases before January 1, 2006 qualify for a tax deduction
on the IRS 1040 form. In 2003 hybrid owners qualified for a $2,000
deduction; the deduction reduces by $500 each year until it reaches zero. HR
1308 Sec. 319 proposed the phasing out of the deduction to put on hold for
the year 2004 and 2005; •Many states give additional tax credits to hybrid
car buyers
• Certain states allow singly-occupied hybrid vehicles to enter the HOV
lanes on the highway. Initially, the Federal Highway Administration ruled
that this was a violation of federal statute until August 10, 2005 when
George W. Bush signed the Transportation Equity Act of 2005 into law.
• Some states, e.g. California, exempt hybrid cars from the biennial
smog inspection, which costs over $50 (as of 2004).
• Hybrid cars can go on certain toll roads for free.
• The city of San Jose, California issues a free parking tag for hybrid
cars that were purchased at a San Jose dealership. The qualified owners do
not have to pay for parking in any city garage or road side parking meters.
• City of Los Angeles, California offers free parking to all hybrid
vehicles starting on October 1, 2004. The experiment is an extension to an
existing offer of free parking for all pure electrical vehicles.
• In October, 2005, the City of Baltimore, Maryland started to offer
discount on monthly parking in the city parking lots, and is considering free
meter parking for hybrid vehicles. On November 3, 2005, the Boston Globe
reports that the city council of Boston is considering the same treatment for
hybrid cars.
• Annual vehicle registration fees in the District of Columbia are half
($36) that paid for conventionally vehicles ($72).
Canada
• Residents in Ontario, Canada can claim a rebate on the Provincial
Retail Sales Tax of up to $2,000 CDN on the purchase or lease of a hybrid
vehicle. [17]
United Kingdom
• Drivers of hybrid vehicles in the United Kingdom benefit from the
lowest band of vehicle excise duty (car tax) which is based on CO2
emissions. In London, these vehicles are also exempt from the £8 ($14) daily
congestion charge in central London. Hybrid drivers also benefit from a
discount in their insurance if they are insured with "MORE TH>N" who
recently announced a discount for hybrids drivers in the UK of up to 13 per
cent.
Trade-offs
In some cases, manufacturers are producing hybrid
vehicles that use the added energy provided by the hybrid systems to give
vehicles a power boost, rather than significantly improved fuel efficiency
compared to their traditional counterparts.[18] The trade-off between added
performance and improved fuel efficiency is mainly something controlled by
the software within the hybrid system. In the future, manufacturers may
provide hybrid-owners with the ability to set this balance (fuel efficiency vs.
added performance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting.[19]
Toyota announced in January, 2006 that it was considering a "high-
efficiency" button.
It has been observed that the success of the hybrid
systems comes despite the need to carry two complete power systems. In a
poorly designed car this might increase the weight and size and therefore
greater losses in acceleration and aerodynamic drag, although the Prius is
lighter and more aerodynamic than many other cars. In fact, the relative
desirability of this concept rests on the deficiencies of the two underlying
systems; the unfavorable torque curve of the internal combustion engine,
referred to above, and the lack of a system of storing and delivering
electrical power with anything near the energy density of combustible liquid
fuels, so that a fuel tank, internal combustion engine, and generator together
still represent a better source of electrical power than the equivalent weight
and volume of batteries. In the event of relatively large leaps forward in
battery or fuel cell technology, the internal combustion portion of the hybrid
will become superfluous. Somewhat less likely is the possibility of a change
in the general popular mode of automobile use largely supplanting short trips
by use of mass transportation, so that the majority of automotive operation
becomes steady speed cruising rather than stopping and starting; this would
eliminate the advantage gained from regenerative braking and the low rpm
torque boost of the electrical portion of the hybrid, and allow very small
forced induction internal combustion engines to become viable competitors
of the heavier hybrid systems.[citation needed]
economics than the environment might steer away from hybrids in favor of
traditional economy vehicles, as they would result in a lower cost in most
cases.
Battery powered all-electric cars (BEVs) are more popular in Europe than in
the U.S. (Most European electric vehicles are purchased from manufactures,
while due to unavailibilty of manufactured vehicles, most U. S. vehicles are
owner produced conversions of older conventional vehicles.) The major U.S.
automobile manufacturers argue that customer demand for pure electric cars
is small. In addition, the long suburban commutes common in the U.S. make
range an important criterion for electric vehicle design. However, if
advances in battery technology allow increased range at comparable cost to
gasoline-powered vehicles, manufacturers will likely mass-market electric
vehicles. The relative cost of gasoline to an equivalent amount of electrical
energy will also be a critical factor in the electric vehicle market.
Another relevant factor is the ultimate source of power for the electric
vehicles. In areas where older coal-fired generators are the source of
electrical power, a pure electric vehicle will be responsible for more
pollution (primarily sulfates and particulates) than a hybrid vehicle (Table
1). Whether greenhouse gas emissions will be lower in such a case is still
under debate
CONCLUTION
The key to a hybrid car is that the gasoline engine can be much smaller than
the one in a conventional car and therefore more efficient
An advantage of the hybrid vehicle is in not requiring any
upgrades to the electric power transmission grid. Since it can't be scaled
larger and smaller at will, the grid is sized so as to carry almost the
maximum load with only occasional failures, and thus has much of its
capacity idle most of the time. For the electric utilities, it would be
advantageous to utilize that excess capacity and thereby generate a greater
revenue for their fixed investment, by selling power to consumers to
recharge their vehicles. However, this vision very pointedly does not allow
for recharging of vehicles during peak usage times; to do so would require
substantial upgrades to the capacity of the grid, and again leave the utilities
with excess capacity most of the time. On the other hand, to require
consumers to refrain from recharging their vehicles during certain times may
not be an easy idea to sell to them.
For now, car manufacturers are focusing on fuel cell-based cars and hybrids.
Fuel cell vehicles are being developed in a long-term research environment,
rather than with expectations of production at any defiinite time. Toyota
intends all of its vehicles to have a hybrid option by 2012.
One can surely conclude that this concept,and
the similar ones to follow with even better efficiency & conservation rate are
very much on the anvil in today’s energy deficit world.
REFERENCE
www.wickipedia.com
www.howstuffworks.com
www.hybrids.com
Auto India