Religious Conflict in Germany: Catholicism vs.

Lutheranism, Charles V couldn't solve

Peace of Augsburg: “Whose rule, his religion” divided German empire

French Wars of Religion (War of the 3 Henries) 1562-98

– Huguenots growing in France (nobles) → threatened Catholic Valois monarchy
– Death of Henry II → claims by Henry III, Henry Bourbon (Navarre), ultra-Catholic Guise
– St Bartholomew's Day Massacre: Bourbon/Medici wedding → Protestant massacre
– Henries assassinated Guise, Valois killed, Henry IV converted Catholic = KING!
Edict of Nantes: Religious toleration for Huguenots, given fortified towns

Eighty Years War (1568)

– Spanish Netherlands under Philip II: North is Calvanist, South is Catholic
– Pacification of Ghent unites against Spain
– Union of Arras = South w/Spain, Utrecht = North rebelled
Treaty of Antwerp: North and South separate

Thirty Years War: Began as religious German civil war → continental conflict of territory + ambition
– Protestant Union vs. Catholic League (German alliances)
– Hapsburg Ferdinand II betrayed Bohemians (religious tol) = Defenestration of Prague
Bohemian: Ferdinand defeated Protestant Frederick V, brought Counter Reformation
Danish: Danish Christian IV (P) defeated by Wallenstein (C)
Swedish:Swedish Adolphus (P) entered to secure Baltic trade
Richelieu brings France into war (reduce Hapsburg power) → WON!
Peace of Prague: Emperor Ferdinand II settled German States
Franco Swedish:French defeat Spanish Hapsburg!
Peace of Westphalia: est. sovereignty over religion → Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist
– disintegration of HRE, Swiss and Dutch independence, France Swed Prus Dutch = POWER

English Civil War:

– James Stuart: Scottish, divine right, didn't recognize legislative power, Catholic
– Charles I: ignored Petition of Right (asserted Parliament power of tax and liberties), ruled
with ship money (tax for defense), tried to impose Catholicism on Scots → rebellion
– Long Parliament asserted liberties 20 yrs, Charles tried to arrest
– King (Cavaliers) vs Parliament (Roundheads), New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell
– Pride's Purge rid moderates = Independents in Rump Parliament
– Lord Protector + Instrument of Gov't → strict Puritan dictatorship
– Charles II (closet Catholic) → Parliament Test Act= officers from church of England
– James II (Tories vs Whigs) avowed Catholic gave birth to male heir
Glorious Revolution: Parliament invited Protestant daughter Mary and William to rule →
Bill of Rights – respect Parliamentary sovereignty and English liberties
Toleration Act – allowed Protestant worship
Act of Succession – prohibited Catholic monarch

Wars of LOUIS XIV:

Edict of Fontainebleau: revoked Edict of Nantes → unified Catholicism
Dutch War: Against Spanish Netherlands + Dutch Republic → gained Franche Comte
Nine Years War: invaded Alsace Lorraine (HRE) → League of Augsburg against France
 War of Spanish Succession: death of Charles II → empire left to Bourbon Philip V
– France + Spain vs. England, Netherlands, HRE
Peace of Utrecht: Philip V is ruler, France + Spain separate → Louis domination blocked
Southern Spanish Netherlands given to Austria

Pragmatic Sanction: Charles VI ensured succession of daughter Maria Theresa to Hapsburg lands

Great Northern War: Sweden vs. Russia for control of Baltic Sea
– Charles XII beat at battle of Narva
– Peter drew Swedish into Russian winter, and crushed army into exile in Ottoman Empire
Treaty of Nystadt: gained territory in Baltic, built capital St. Petersburg “window to the west”

War of Austrian Succession:

– Frederick II The Great attacked Austria in defiance of Pragmatic Sanction, took advantage
– nations and France joined Prussia against Hapsburgs to claim territory
– British joined Austria with Maria Theresa to maintain balance of power
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: Prussia gained Silesia, Anglo-French agreement, Austria little input
Diplomatic Revolution (of 1756):
– Austrian diplomat Kaunitz convinced France to give up traditional opposition b/c greater
threat of Prussia
– France + Austria + Russia vs. Prussia + Britain (for B.O.P)

Seven Years War (French and Indian War):

– Fredrick II outnumbered but fought brilliantly w/Brit financial support; held onto Silesia
– opponents disorganized
– Brit won land + sea battles against France, used East India company to exploit India
Treaty of Paris: Brit gained N. American (taxes = Amer. Rev. )and Indian dominance (colonial
presence) , increased debt and criticism of French monarchy (French Rev.)

FRENCH REVOLUTION
Causes:
Social – Three Estates: clergy, nobles (tax exempt, bourgeois mobility), everyone
(wealthy merchants to laborers, sans-culottes wanted equality, felt price increase
and stagnant wages)
– Enlightened nobles criticized Old regime inequities
Political – Conflict btwn nobles (had limited parlements) and absolute monarchy (Louis
XV dissolved and reconvened Parlement of Paris)
– Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette → scandal, not help through crisis
Economic – Rapid economic expansion → great wealth unequally distributed
– regressive tax system, Louis recognized need for reform
– nobles resisted tax changes, wanted political reform
Liberal Phase:
– 1789 Tennis Court Oath decided wanted new constitution
– July fall of the Bastille by Paris crowds
– king recognizes National Assembly
– Great Fear: peasants attack feudal system → dismantled by Assembly
– Decl. of Right of Man and Citizen: “liberty, property, security, res. to oppression”
 – October Days: women march on Versailles
– 1790 Civil Const. Of the Clergy: requires clergy to swear loyalty to revolution
– Constitution of 1791 declares active (property) and passive citizens
Radical Phase (1792-1794):
– Declaration of Pillnitz: Austria and Prussia promise to restore order in France
– Brunswick Manifesto: nations threaten violence against revolution
– sans-culottes oppose moderate Girondin actions
– “Second French Revolution” → National Convention est. and declares republic
– Commune executes Girondins, Const. Of 1793 calls for universal male suffrage
– committee of Pub. Safety (Jacobin) → Reign of Terror (Robespierre, Danton)
– conscription for state “Levee en masse,” de-Christianization, abolition of slavery,
Maximum Price Act, war dictatorship, rid of all opposition to state (extreme right/left)
Thermidor + Directory (Moderate):
– Thermadorian Reaction: end CoPS, revolutionary violence, new Constitution
– Universal male suffrage, 5 director assembly
– Napoleon stages coup d'etat

Napoleonic Warfare:
– Plans to defeat Britain thwarted at Battle of Trafalgar
– Russia withdrew Continental System → France attack → Grand Army's retreat frm Moscow
– Peninsular War: replaced Spanish King with tolerant brother, disliked → guerrilla war
– Defeated at Battle of Nations in Germany and Waterloo (1815)

Congress of Vienna
– Austria (Metternich wanted to repress nationalism), France (Talleyrand wanted to return
legitimacy), Britain (wanted BOP), Prussia (no influence), Russia (liberal Alexander I
wanted Poland and Holy Alliance aka Aus Rus Prus)
– Legitimacy: restored rightful monarchs (conservative)
– Compensation: lost land received new land
– BOP: buffer states to block France, Netherlands combined, territories strengthened
– RESULTS: Polish-Saxon question → Russia controlled Poland (tsar as king), German
Confederation formed, Quintuple Alliance, Concert of Europe to ensure security

*Young Italy formed by nationalist Mazzini (joined secret society of Carbonari) in 1831

Revolutions of 1830-1831:
France:
– Charles X reestablished Catholic clergy and aristocratic power
– July Ordinances took away voting rights and censored press
– middle class moderates revolt → abdicate → Louis Philippe “bourgeois king”
Belgium:
– declared independence and neutrality
Poland:
– revolted against Russian authority, crushed by Nicholas I
– “Congress” Poland eliminated and directly controlled by Russia
Greece:
 – revolt against Turks supported by Europe b/c classic founders → Turk defeat

Revolutions of 1848:
France:
– liberals engage in banquets for suffrage expansion → cancelled → revolt
– Louis Blanc (new king) advocates national workshops to appease working class
– Radicals attack constituent assembly for Socialist Republic
– June Days = violence of radicals vs. army → moderate republic
– Louis Napoleon is pres. Of 2nd Republic → exploits middle/working class conflict for
authoritarian control
Prussia:
– Liberals revolt in Berlin against monarch
– Frederick William IV agrees to Prussian assembly and conservative constitution
– 1850 Constitution: no equality, still tradition institutions, provided representation
Frankfurt:
– Liberals overthrow traditional structures in German states and discuss unification
– “small” vs “large” Germany debate (Austria), Frankfurt Assembly created constitution
– Fredrick William rejected “crown from the gutter”
Austria:
– Workers and Students march on Vienna
– Metternich (conservative creator of Congress System) flees at revolutions
– Franz Joseph I becomes emperor: abolishes serfdom, agrees to Constitution (1849)
Prague:
– Slavic nationalists meet to discuss unification → broke up Prague Assembly
– Austrian emperor promised autonomy, then broke up Pan-Slav Congress
Budapest:
– Hungarian Diet in March proclaimed liberty for Maygars (Austrian ethnic minority)
– led by nationalist Kossuth
– proclaim new constitution but suppresses Slav minorities → emperor rejects → Hungary
declares independence → Nicholas I called to crush movement
Italy:
– Charles Albert of Piedmont Sardinia urges resistance to Austrian rule, grants consit.
– Italian states rise up against Austria
– Pope Pius IX reformer turned anti-modernist when expelled from Rome
– Nationalist Mazzini of “Young Italy” declares Roman Republic

The Crimean War:

– Russian occupied “Sick Man of Europe” Ottoman lands but evacuated, France and Britain
declared war anyway
– Austria betrayed Russia and abandoned → isolated Russia vs. France
– Nicholas I died → Alexander II recognized backwardness
Treaty of Paris (1856): Russian demilitarization of Black Sea, half Balkan expansion

Italian Unification:
– Cavour convinced France to aid Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria
– republican Garibaldi led Red Shirts to conquest Piedmont Sardinia
 – moderate Cavour planned
– 1861 North and South peninsula united in Italian kingdom under Emmanuel
– “passion of Mazzini, audacity of Garibaldi, cunning of Cavour”
– opposition from papacy, underdeveloped economy, corrupt politics, cultural differences

German Unification:
– Bismarck = conservative diplomatic, practiced Realpolitik (took advantage of opportunities)
– Appealed to Prussian patriotism “iron and blood”, not liberalism
– Waged 3 wars for unity:
aided Russia in crushing Polish revolt,
Danish War (Denmark incorporated German provinces against international treaty)
Austro-Prussian (7 weeks) War: conflicts between joint powers → isolated Austria,
and Prussia used railroads + organization to overwhelm Austria
– North German Confederation with universal male suffrage (Reichstag) and illegal taxes
– Ems Dispatch edited account to an insult to French → Franco Prussian War
– Treaty of Frankfurt → loss of Alsace-Lorraine
– Wilhelm I proclaimed kaiser of German Empire (1871) → power concentrated, exploit
– upset BOP w/economic and military potential

Dual Monarchy
– Austro-Hungarian monarchy allowed Magyar autonomy with common ministries
– no democratic kingdoms
– Maygarization in Hungary suppressed Slavic culture

Paris Commune
– Revolution gov't crushed by moderate republic → est. Parliamentary democracy
– Dreyfus Affair (displayed anit-Semitism) further divided gov'ts (republicans and foreign
gov'ts rallied for cause – tested repub. Strength)

Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

– Congo Free State for Leopold
– procedure to establish colonies

Imperialsim in Asia
Treaty of Nanking 1842 = free trade
Spheres of influence of Britain, France, Russia, Germany
Meiji Restoration in Japan westernized → victory in Russo Japanese War

WWI
Causes “MAIMIN'”
1. Militarism/Military Plans:
– conscription and training created mass citizen armies
– Kaiser Wilhelm II developed fleet of battle ships- threat to Brit naval dominance
– Schlieffen Plan: two-front war against Russia and France
2. Alliances
– Franco Russian, Entente Cordiale, Anglo Russian Entente = Triple Entente
– Three Emperor's League (G/A/R), Austro Germ. Alliance → Triple Allieance
 3. Imperialism
– increased tension and hardened alliances
– Moroccan Crises provoked by Wilhelm led to French-Brit joint
– Brit isolation in Boer War → approached other nations for security against Germany
4. Mass Politics
– Imperialism + nationalism promoted for unity against strikes, ethic, extremists
5. Intellectual Context
– Darwinism glorified war as natural advance of strong over weak
6. Nationalism
– Made compromise difficult, and fed ethnic tensions in Balkans (Austria vs. Russia)
Russian Turkish War: Russia intervened in Balkans vs Ottomans for protection and territory,
created independent states and Bulgaria
Congress of Berlin: divided Bulgaria into autonomies, Russian occupation (not control)
– Sebian Black Hand tried to expell Austrian influence from Balkans
Balkan Wars: Balkan League attacked Ottomans, Russia lost face, Bulgaria wanted territory
“Blank Check” issued from Wilhelm to Austria to settle conflict → allowed hard line action
– Serbia reject ulitmatum, Austria declared war, Nicholas mobilized army in Russia,
Germany declared war on Russia (trig. Alliances), France got dragged into war
Nature of War: trench warfare, airplanes, tanks, submarines, gas
– Miracle at the Marne halted German offensive in France
– Stalemate of 1915 broken by expanding allies
– Slaughter in Verdun (1916-17) = surprise German attack w/ massive casualties
– Bolsheviks pulled Russia out of war, replaced by US (submarine warfare, Zimmerman
Telegram)
– German Armistice ended fighting
Fourteen Points: Wilson making “world safe for democracy”, open diplomacy, freedom of sea,
arms reduction, collective security, self-determination of nations, international governing body
aka League of Nations
Treaty of Versailles:
– territorial loss (Germany)
– demilitarization (esp. of Rhineland)
– war guilt (accept full responsibility for war)
– extreme reparations (approx. $33 million)
– League of Nations (US not ratified, Germany and Soviet excluded)

Locarno Pact: Germany and France recognized new boarders

Kellog-Briand Pact (1928): condemned war

Russian Revolution:
1861-1905 Causes:
– technological/economic backwardness, government unable to harness will of people
– Alexander II reforms → abolition of serfdom = serfs still in mirs, nobles seized best
land, land shortage, industrial overcrowding Moscow/St. Petersburg
– divided between Slavophiles and Westernizers (capitalist Constitutional Democrats vs.
Marxist Social democrats)
– People's Will anarchist movement assassinated Alexander II
– Social Revolutionaries favored socialism led by rural peasants
 – Mensheviks massed a mass political party, Bolsheviks wanted a conspiracy
Revolution of 1905:
– Bloody Sunday: Strikes in major cities, universities, winter Palace → troops fired
– economic crisis due to Russ Japanese War, broke down infrastructure
– Nicholas II stopped any moderate efforts for const. Monarchy
– PM Stolypin introduced reforms to move Russia toward parliamentary democracy and
modern economy
March Revolution and Provisional Gov't
– WWI exposed economic/ technological weakness of Romanov Dynasty
– 1915 – Tsar dissolved Duma, took control of troops (unprepared)
– Rasputin influenced corruption through tsar's wife
– Food riot ---> troops joined crown instead of acting ---> end to Romanov Dynasty
– Provisional Gov't replaced Tsar (democrats and moderate socialists)
– Radical councils of workers = soviets in cities (Petrograd Soviet pushed gov't left)
– Ordered democratically elected commitees to run army
– Alexander Kerensky headed gov't – faced uprisings from Bolsheviks and conservative
Kornilov (used Bolsheviks to stop coup attempt)
Bolshevik Revolution
– Lenin's Contributions to Socialist Ideology:
– Imperialism is crisis of capitalism, small group of conspirators, concentrating of
revolution in “weakest link in the chain”, needed revolution now for
industrialization, “Peace, bread, and land”
– 1917 Bolsheviks seized gov't, peasants/workers seized land/factories, disbanded
Constituent Assembly (social revolutionaries and Mensheviks) → CIVIL WAR
– Dictatorship of Communist Party proclaimed
– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: treaty signed w/ Germany to end Russian involvement in
WWI. Recognizes independence of Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine. Lost population,
resources, and farmland.

Russian Civil War:

Red Army: Led by Trotsky to fight civil war for Bolsheviks
White Army: tsarists, Mensheviks, social revolutionaries, etc.
– survived due to common mission, foreign intervention showed opponents as traitors, bad
communication of White Army, Bolsheviks more ruthless with secret police (KGB)
– 1922 control secured, Red Terror eliminated class enemies, Checka killed 2 million
– created

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1922

– of 15 republics, half Russian → Russification movement failed
– created comintern (alliance of socialist parties) to control international communist
movements
– Centralized structure with Central committee, and a Politburo to make decisions
– Lenin introduced New Economic Policy = compromise with capitalism to jump-start
production (private peasant grain sale, new wealthy peasants called kulaks, provoked a split
in Politburo
– death of Lenin after civil war → trotsky protest NEP, Stalin kicked out of Party → POWER