UNIT
4


Tectonic
Activity
and
Hazards




In
the
outer
core
temperature
and
pressure

will
increase
with
depth.



Asthenosphere:
hot,
weak,
plastic


Lithosphere:
cool,
rigid,
brittle


Earthquakes

The
crust
of
the
earth
is
mobile,
so
there
is
a
slow
build‐up
of
stress
within
rocks.
When
the
pressure
is

suddenly
released,
parts
of
the
surface
experience
an
intense
shaking
motion
that
typically
lasts
for
only
a

few
seconds.
The
plane
of
rupture
is
called
a
fault
and
the
location
of
movement
is
the
hypocenter
or
focus.

The
point
immediately
above
the
focus
on
the
land
surface
is
called
the
epicenter.



The
depth
of
focus
is
important
in
determining
the
amount
of
surface
damage
that
results.
Three
broad

categories
are
recognised:


o Deep
focus:
300‐700km

o Intermidiate
focus:
70‐300km

o Shallow
focus:
0‐70km


Shallow‐focus
rearthquakes
cause
the
greatest
amount
of
damage
and
account
for
approximately
75%
of
all

earthquakes.


The
majority
of
earthquakes
occur
along
plate
boundaries
(interplate).
Intraplate
earthquakes
are
less

frequent,
within
plate
interiors.
The
most
powerful
earthquakes
are
found
at
destructive,
interplate
margins.



The
distribution
of
earthquakes
reveals
the
following
pattern
of
tectonic
activity:
(PLATE
TECHNOTONICS

MAP)


o The
ocean
fracture
zone
(OFZ)
–
a
belt
of
activity
through
the
oceans
along
the
mid‐ocean
ridges,
coming

ashore
in
Africa,
the
Red
Sea,
the
Dead
Sea
rift
and
California

o The
continental
fracture
zone
(CFZ)
–
a
belt
of
activity
following
the
mountain
ranges
from
Spain,
via
the

Alps,
to
the
Middle
East,
the
Himalayas
to
the
East
Indies
and
then
circumscribing
the
Pacific.

o Scattered
earthquakes
in
continental
interiors
(associated
with
volcanic
islands)























































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Plate
Boundaries:


1. Destructive
(convergent
or
subductive)
margins
are
well
developed
along
the
CFZ


There
are
3
types
of
convergent
boundaries:




Oceanic­Continental
Convergence:


When
an
oceanic
plate
pushes
into
and

subducts
under
a
continental
plate,
the

overriding
continental
plate
is
lifted
up

and
a
mountain
range
is
created.
Even

though
the
oceanic
plate
as
a
whole
sinks

smoothly
and
continuously
into
the

subduction
trench,
the
deepest
part
of
the

subducting
plate
breaks
into
smaller

pieces.
These
smaller
pieces
become

locked
in
place
for
long
periods
of
time

before
moving
suddenly
and
generating

large
earthquakes.
Such
earthquakes
are

often
accompanied
by
uplift
of
the
land
by

as
much
as
a
few
metres.


Oceanic­Oceanic
Convergence:


When
two
oceanic
plates
converge
one
is

usually
subducted
under
the
other
and
in

the
process
a
deep
oceanic
trench
is

formed.
The
Marianas
Trench,
for

example,
is
a
deep
trench
created
as
the

result
of
the
Phillipine
Plate
subducting

under
the
Pacific
Plate.




Oceanic‐oceanic
plate
convergence
also

results
in
the
formation
of
undersea

volcanoes.
Over
millions
of
years,

however,
the
erupted
lava
and
volcanic

debris
pile
up
on
the
ocean
floor
until
a

submarine
volcano
rises
above
sea
level

to
form
an
island
volcano.
Such
volcanoes
are
typically
strung
out
in
chains
called
island
arcs.


Continental­Continental
Convergence:


When
two
continents
meet
head‐on,

neither
is
subducted
because
the

continental
rocks
are
relatively
light
and,

like
two
colliding
icebergs,
resist

downward
motion.
Instead,
the
crust

tends
to
buckle
and
be
pushed
upward
or

sideways.
The
collision
of
India
into
Asia

50
million
years
ago
caused
the
Eurasian

Plate
to
crumple
up
and
override
the

Indian
Plate.
After
the
collision,
the
slow

continuous
convergence
of
the
two
plates

over
millions
of
years
pushed
up
the

Himalayas
and
the
Tibetan
Plateau
to
their

present
heights.
Most
of
this
growth

occurred
during
the
past
10
million
years.























































































































































































































































UNIT
4


2. Conservative
(transform
faults)



Transform‐Fault
Boundaries
are
where
two
plates
are

sliding
horizontally
past
one
another.
These
are
also

known
as
transform
boundaries
or
more
commonly

as
faults.


Most
transform
faults
are
found
on
the
ocean
floor.

They
commonly
offset
active
spreading
ridges,

producing
zig‐zag
plate
margins,
and
are
generally

defined
by
shallow
earthquakes.
A
few,
however,

occur
on
land.
The
San
Andreas
fault
zone
in

California
is
a
transform
fault
that
connects
the
East

Pacific
Rise,
a
divergent
boundary
to
the
south,
with

the
South
Gorda
‐‐
Juan
de
Fuca
‐‐
Explorer
Ridge,

another
divergent
boundary
to
the
north.
The
San

Andreas
is
one
of
the
few
transform
faults
exposed
on

land.
The
San
Andreas
fault
zone,
which
is
about

1,300
km
long
and
in
places
tens
of
kilometres
wide,

slices
through
two
thirds
of
the
length
of
California.

Along
it,
the
Pacific
Plate
has
been
grinding

horizontally
past
the
North
American
Plate
for
10

million
years,
at
an
average
rate
of
about
5
cm/yr.

Land
on
the
west
side
of
the
fault
zone
(on
the
Pacific

Plate)
is
moving
in
a
northwesterly
direction
relative

to
the
land
on
the
east
side
of
the
fault
zone
(on
the

North
American
Plate).


3. Divergent
(constructive)


At
divergent
boundaries
new
crust
is
created
as
wo
or
more

plates
pull
away
from
each
other.
Oceans
are
born
and
grow

wider
where
plates
diverge
or
pull
apart.
As
seen
below,
when
a

diverging
boundary
occurs
on
land
a
'rift',
or
separation
will

arise
and
over
time
that
mass
of
land
will
break
apart
into

distinct
land
masses
and
the
surrounding
water
will
fill
the

space
between
them.



Iceland
offers
scientists
a
natural
laboratory
for
studying
‐
on

land
‐
the
processes
that
occur
along
submerged
parts
of
a

divergent
boundary.
Iceland
is
splitting
along
the
Mid­Atlantic

Ridge
‐
a
divergent
boundary
between
the
North
American
and

Eurasian
Plates.
As
North
America
moves
westward
and
Eurasia

eastward,
new
crust
is
created
on
both
sides
of
the
diverging

boundary.
While
the
creation
of
new
crust
adds
mass
to
Iceland

on
both
sides
of
the
boundary,
it
also
creates
a
rift
along
the

boundary.
Iceland
will
inevitably
break
apart
into
two
separate
land
masses
at
some
point
in
the
future,
as

the
Atlantic
waters
eventually
rush
in
to
fill
the
widening
and
deepening
space
between.
























































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Main
hazards


The
hazards
associated
with
earthquakes
may
be
summarized
as
follows:


o Ground
displacement
is
not
life‐threatening
in
itself,
but
its
impact
on
buildings
and
other
structures

such
as
bridges
and
roads
most
certainly
is.
Displacement
of
gas
and
electricity
supply
systems
can
lead

to
a
secondary
hazard:
fire

o Landslides
are
movements
of
masses
of
rock,
earth
or
debris
down
a
slope.
Slope
failure
can
be
triggered

by
a
number
of
events,
including
earthquake
tremors.


o Liquefaction
occurs
when
the
shaking
of
silts,
sands
and
gravels
cause
them
to
lose
their
load‐bearing

capacity.
As
a
result,
buildings
and
other
structures
may
sink
into
the
ground.

o Tsunamis
are
ocean
waves
with
extremely
long
wavelengths,
generated
by
earthquake
tremors.



The
effects
of
earthquakes
on
landscapes:


Different
types
of
fault
can
occur
as
a
result
of
ground

moving
during
earthquakes.



Faults.
Sometimes
rock
can
be
broken
by
movements

within
the
earth’s
crust,
and
then
displaced
sideways,
up
or

down.
When
this
occurs,
it
is
referred
to
as
a
fault.

They
are

so
called
because
an
error
or
‘fault’
appears
to
have

occurred
within
rock
strata
or
surface
features
that
are
no

longer
in
alignment
on
opposite
sides
of
the
fault
line.



A
fault
zone
is
a
region
of
the
earth
where
the
crust
is

relatively
weak
and
where
a
fault
is
likely
to
occur.
A
fault

line
is
a
point
of
intersection
within
that
zones.
Fault
lines

are
usually
associated
with
earthquake
activity,
as
abrupt

earth
movements
can
occur
along
them.



Rift
valleys.
These
can
form
at
the
point
where
3
tectonic
plate
boundaries
meet.
They
tend
to
be
large

landform
features.
Rift
valleys
form
when
one
arm
of
the
3‐plate
boundary
stops
moving
or
spreading.
The

result
is
a
valley
between
the
plates,
much
like
a
canyon,
only
bigger.
When
rift
valleys
continue
to
grow

between
continents
new
oceans
can
form.



It
is
thought
that
rift
valleys
that
developed
in
the
ancient
continent
of
Pangea
resulted
in
its
break‐up
into

the
separate
continents
of
Africa,
Europe
and
North
and
South
America,
and
the
beginning
of
the
Atlantic

Ocean.
This
ocean
continues
to
grow,
spreading
every
year
along
the
rift
that
is
known
as
the
Mid‐Atlantic

Ridge.
The
biggest
rift
valley
on
earth
is
the
so‐called
Great
Rift
Valley
in
Africa,
which
is
6,000km
long.
























































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Volcanoes

A
volcano
is
a
landform
that
develops
around
a
weakness
in
the
earth’s
crust,
from
which
molten
magma,

disrupted
from
pre‐existing
volcanic
rock,
and
gases
are
ejected
or
extruded.
The
violence
of
an
eruption
is

determined
by
the
amount
of
dissolved
gases
and
how
easily
the
gases
can
escape.



Volcanoes
may
be
classified
as:


o The
central‐vent
type,
where
the
eruption
takes
place
from
a
single
pipe

o The
fissure
type,
where
magma
is
extruded
along
a
linear
fracture



They
may
also
form
low‐lying
craters
know
as
calderas,
created
as
a
result
of
subsistence
or
collapse

following
an
eruption.



Volcanoes
may
be
active,
dormant
or
extinct:


o An
extinct
volcano
is
one
that
is
not
erupting
now
and
is
not
likely
to
erupt
in
the
future

o A
dormant
volcano
is
one
that
is
not
erupting
now
but
has
erupted
since
written
records
were
begun

(e.g.
in
the
last
200
years),
and
is
likely
to
do
so
in
the
future.

o An
active
volcano
is
one
that
is
erupting
r
is
not
likely
to
erupt
in
the
near
future


The
distribution
of
volcanoes
is
restricted
to
zones
where
there
is
a
supply
of
magma
from
the
earth’s

interior.
Most
volcanoes
coincide
with
the
margins
of
techntonic
plates
(interplate),
but
some
volcanoes

occur
above
hotspots
within
plate
interiors,
i.e.
intraplate.



The
potential
impact
of
a
volcano
is
determined
by
a
number
of
factor.
Specific
factors
include
eruption

duration
and
length
of
eruption
climax
as
well
as
the
type
of
lava,
which
depends
on
silica
content.



Types
of
volcano:


Cinder
volcanoes.
The
most
common
type
of
volcano
is
the
cinder
volcano.
Also
referred
to
as
scoria

volcanoes,
they
are
the
smallest
type
of
volcano,
often
less
that
300m
high.
Cinder
cones
tend
to
have
very

straight
sides.
Despite
their
low
height,
they
can
be
very
steep,
with
the
sides
of
some
cinder
cones
inclining

at
as
much
as
35°.

Cinder
cones
have
a
very
consistent
composition,
being
almost
entirely
made
up
of

pyroclastic
lapilli
–
volcanic
material
that
is
between
2
mm
and
64
mm
in
size.





















































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Composite
volcanoes.
Considered
to
be
the
most
picturesque
of
all
volcano
types.
They
are
also
considered

the
most
deadly.
The
typical
shape
of
a
composite
volcano
is
a
tall
cone
with
sides
that
slope
gently
at
the

base
but
that
become
increasingly
steep
towards
the
summit.
Results
in
a
volcano
with
concave
sides.
The

summit
itself
is
small
in
comparison
other
volcanic
cones.
They
are
composed
of
different
types
of
volcanic

material,
and
these
tend
to
exist
in
alternate
layers
throughout
the
volcanic
profile.


Shield
volcanoes.
Tend
to
be
very
broad
and
relatively
flat.
Having
gentle
slopes
at
their
lower
levels,
shield

cones
increase
in
steepness
mid‐slope
before
flattening
out
again
towards
the
summit.
Gives
it
a
convex

shape.


Types
of
eruption:


The
type
of
eruption
is
largely
dependent
on
the
composition
of
magma
that
found
within
a
given
area.



Hawaiian
eruptions.
Calmest
of
all
volcanic
eruptions.
Generally
non‐explosive,
they
are
so
named
because
of

their
prevalence
on
the
islands
of
Hawaii.
Hawaiian
eruptions
tend
to
involve
steady
foundations
of
lava

which
run
quickly
away
from
the
summit
of
the
volcano
through
lava
channels.
This
typically
results
in
the

formation
of
shield
volcanoes.



Strombolian
eruptions.
Tend
to
occur
in
areas
where
relatively
viscous
basaltic
magma
is
found.
The

viscosity
of
the
magma
prevents
the
escape
of
volcanic
gases,
leading
to
a
build‐up
of
pressure
within
the

volcano.
Episodic
eruptions
are
the
result,
releasing
the
pressure
build‐up
with
a
large
‘booming’
sound.

Eruptions
tend
to
feature
vast
amounts
of
lapilli,
and
as
a
consequence,
cinder
cones
tend
to
build
up
around

the
volcanic
vent.



Vulcanian
eruptions.
Tend
to
be
short‐lived,
lasting
only
a
few
hours.
Found
in
areas
where
lava
is
highly

viscous,
a
build‐up
of
pressure
within
the
volcano
means
that
these
eruptions
are
relatively
intense.

Pyroclastic
blocks
ad
bombs
are
ejected
at
high
velocity,
with
much
of
the
pyroclastic
material
being
blasted

from
the
sides
of
the
volcano.
A
high
degree
of
fragmentation
of
the
volcanic
material
during
the
eruption

leads
to
the
formation
of
vast
amounts
of
volcanic
ash.
Being
more
explosive
than
any
of
the
other
types
of

eruption
covered
so
far,
Vulcanian
eruptions
can
result
in
the
formation
of
eruption
columns
that
reach

between
5‐10km
into
the
air.





















































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Plinian
eruptions.
These
eruptions
occur
where
magma
is
dacitic
or
rhyolitic
in
its
composition.
The
high

viscosity
of
these
types
of
magma
prevents
the
escape
of
volcanic
gases,
leading
to
highly
explosive

eruptions.
During
Plinian
eruptions
materials
can
be
ejected
from
the
volcano
at
speeds
of
hundreds
of
m/s.



Extrusive
volcanic
landforms:


Once
extruded
onto
the
surface
of
the
earth,
magma
is
referred
to
as
lava,
which
cools
and
hardens
to
form

igneous
rocks.
Extrusive
igneous
activity
leads
to
the
creation
of
a
variety
of
landorm
features
above
the

surface
of
the
earth.


Volcanic
cones.
The
central
vent
of
the
volcano
is
connected
to
a
store
of
magma
below
the
surface,
which
is

known
as
the
magma
chamber.
The
extrusion
of
lava
from
the
vent
leads
to
the
creation
of
a
volcanic
cone.

With
each
new
eruption,
new
layers
are
added
to
the
cone,
in
the
first
instance
by
the
lava
and
pyroclastic

materials
which
are
injected
from
the
volcano,
and
then
by
the
volcanic
ash
which
later
settles
from
the
air.


Fissures.
These
are
cracks
or
openings
within
rock
through
which
magma
escapes
onto
the
surface
of
the

earth.
They
usually
form
because
of
weaknesses
that
exist
within
rock.
Fissures
can
be
connected
back
to
the

magma
chamber
below
a
volcano
or
to
a
secondary
source
of
magma,
such
as
the
vent
of
the
volcano
itself.



Lava
plateaux.
This
is
a
raised
area
of
land
that
has
been
formed
by
repeated
lava
flows
in
a
given
place
over

a
period
of
time.
Layered
lava
flows
can
form
tablelands
or
flat‐topped
hills
that
can
extend
for
hundreds
or

even
thousands
of
km2.



Intrusive
volcanic
landforms:


Intrusive
processes
can
also
result
in
the
creation
of
volcanic
landforms.
Intrusion
occurs
when
magma
cools

and
hardens
into
rocks
below
the
earth’s
surface.
Over
time,
and
after
many
years
of
weathering
of
the
less

resistant
rock
that
surrounds
them,
intrusive
features
can
become
exposed
at
or
above
the
surface
of
the

earth,
creating
unique
volcanic
landforms.



Batholith.
Largest
of
the
igneous
rocks
thata
form
as
a
result
of
intrusive
activity.
They
tend
to
be
irregular
in

shape
and
are
often
composed
of
granite.
Parts
of
a
batolith
can
become
exposed
at
the
surface
by
processes

such
as
tectonic
uplift
or
weathering,
but
much
of
the
rest
may
remain
buried
because
of
their
enourmous

size.





















































































































































































































































UNIT
4


Stock.
The
term
used
to
describe
instrusive
igneous
rocks
that
are
smaller
in
sie
and
extent
than
a
batholith.

They
must
be
less
than
100km2
in
areal
extent.
Often,
stocks
form
as
offshoots
of
larger
batholits.



Laccolith.
A
dome
of
igneous
rock
that
is
formed
between
2
layers
of
per‐existing
sedimentary
rock.

Laccoliths
are
created
when
slow‐flowing,
highly
viscous
magma
is
forced
between
the
horizontal
layers
of

exisiting
strata.
Eventually,
the
magma
builds
up
into
a
dome
or
mushroom
shape.



Dike.
Usually
a
vertical
or
near
vertical
sheet
of
rock
that
is
created
when
magma
is
thrust
into
a
body
of
pre‐
existing
rock.
By
their
nature,
dikes
cut
across
layers
of
existing
rock.
Sometimes
dikes
form
in
fractures
or

weak
points
within
rock
strata.
Most
commonly,
dikes
are
found
near
volcanic
cones.
Prior
to
the
hardening

of
rock
within
the
dike,
it
may
be
a
conduit
for
magma
to
reach
the
surface
of
the
earth.
When
exposed
above

the
earth’s
surface,
a
dike
can
appear
to
be
a
‘wall’
of
volcanic
rock.



Sill.
A
sill
is
the
name
given
to
a
long,
thin
intrusion
of
igneous
rock
through
pre‐existing
strata.
Unlike
dikes,

which
cut
across
layers
of
rock,
sills
intrude
between
other
layers,
forming
a
distinct
layer
of
their
own.
The

orientation
of
the
sill
is
determined
by
the
nature
of
the
rocks
themselves
and
the
ease
with
which
the

magma
can
force
its
way
through
during
the
period
of
formation.



Vein.
Sometimes,
magma
will
find
its
way
into
the
small
cracks,
fractures
and
openings
that
exist
in
the
rock

that
lies
below
the
surface
of
the
earth.
When
this
magma
cools
to
form
igneous
rock,
the
vein‐like
patterns

within
the
rocks
can
remain.



Main
hazards:


o Lava
flows
are
sheets
and
tongues
of
liquid
rock
expelled
from
the
crown
or
flank
of
an
erupting
volcano.

Although
some
lava
flows
can
travel
at
80‐100
km/h
others
move
at
human
walking
pace
or
more

slowly.
The
speed
of
a
flow
depends
on
the
viscosity
of
the
lava,
which
itself
is
influenced
by
the

temperature,
the
silica
content
and
the
incline
of
the
volcano’s
slope.

o Explosive
blasts
are
outburts
of
fragments
of
rock
and
lava
driven
by
gases
expanding
at
great
depths.

These
blasts
may
throw
great
blocks
of
rock
many
km’s.
However,
the
superheated
blast
cloud
expelled

by
the
volcano
is
more
destructive.


o Ash
flows
are
dense
masses
of
gas
and
fragments
of
lava
that
flow
down
the
sides
of
volcanoes
at
great

speeds.
They
form
when
gas‐saturated
lava
comes
near
the
surface
of
the
earth:
as
the
pressure
falls,
the

gas
forms
bubbles
which
break
the
lava
into
tiny
fragments
of
liquid
rock
(called
ash).
It
the
ratio
of
gas

to
ash
is
red‐hot
flows.
Also
called
pyroclastic
flows,
these
are
partially
controlled
into
gravity,
and
since

the
gas
reduces
he
friction
between
the
ash
particles,
they
can
flow
very
far
and
very
fast.


o Ash
falls
are
less
devastating
than
ash
flows
but
can
be
very
disruptive.
Explosive
volcanoes
throw

clouds
of
ash
into
the
atmosphere
which
then
fall
to
earth
downwind.
The
heavy
ash
can
collapse
roofs,

break
branches
and
coat
the
leaves
of
plants.

o Mudflows
commonly
occur
on
volcanoes
with
large
deposits
of
ice
and
snow
on
their
summits.
As

meltwater
flows
down
the
volcano’s
flank,
it
mixes
with
loose
soil
and
ash
to
form
a
muddy
liquid
the

consistency
of
wet
cement.
The
Asian
term
for
a
volcanic
mudflow,
lahar,
is
widely
used.


o Glacial
outbursts
are
masses
of
water
or
ice
suddenly
released
from
a
glacier
by
the
heat
from
lava
inside

a
volcano.
Glacial
outbursts
are
primarily
water,
but
they
can
turn
into
mudflows
if
they
flow
over

ground
with
abundant
soil
or
gravel.


o Poisonous
gases
are
released
in
and
around
volcanoes
before,
during,
and
for
many
years
after
volcanic

eruptions.
The
most
abundant
gases,
water
vapor
and
CO2,
are
not
poisonous,
but
smaller
quantities
of

more
toxic
gases
are
released.



Pyroclasts:


Pyroclastic
Material
 Description
 Size


Volcanic
Ash
 Very
small
particles,
usually
of
a
fine
grain
 Less
than
2mm

Lapilli
 Medium‐sized
particles,
sometimes
referred
to
as
‘cinders’
 2mm
–
64mm


Blocks
and
bombs
 Large
aggregates
of
volcanic
material
 Greater
than
64mm




Pyroclastic
flows
is
a
mixture
of
superheated
rock
and
hot
gases
that
rapidly
flows
down
the
side
of
a

volcano.
Moving
extremely
quickly,
pyroclastic
flows
are
impossible
to
outrun
and
completely
destroy

anything
in
their
path.