ECE267B – Adv. Ind. & Pwr. Electr. – Homework #2, due Th.

4/21/11

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1) Spectrum envelope of triangular waveforms

Find a spectrum upper bound for these waveforms:

a) Current thru an inductor in CCM with duty cycle 50%
b) Current thru a switch of a DCM converter

For both of them frequency is fsw

What happens to the spectrum of b) if you consider the right edge perfectly
vertical, or if you take it with a finite slope?

As I told you in class, this is a tough and open question. What is not difficult to
find is that the first waveform has only odd harmonics, decreasing as 1/n2, this
means that the upper bound decreases with a -40dB/dec slope.
A triangular waveform with a vertical edge has two kinds of terms, decreasing
with 1/n and 1n2. First terms are larger than the n2 terms, so overall the upper
bound envelope descends at -20dB/dec.
A triangular waveform with two finite slopes, even with the second slope very
steep has an upper bound that eventually will decrease with -40dB/dec slope,
around 1/(πtf).

2) Parasitics of a capacitor

You did a good job. For electrolytic capacitors it is possible to calculate the
1
frequency of first zero: f z1 = This gives an idea about the
2π ⋅ ESR ⋅ C
capacitor quality. For Al caps, sround 1kHz or less, really lousy. Around
2kHz-4kHz slightly better, at about 10 kHz good standard capacitors. At
tens of kilohertz they are usually special caps (organic electrolyte,
Oscom…)

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 1 of 6

 3) Spectrum of a (differential) voltage noise

The current from a switching stage is locally closed through a 2200µF

capacitor having an ESR of 30 mΩ and an ESL of 90nH. The current has this
specifications:

Periodic trapezoidal pulses, frequency 200 kHz

Pulse width (at 50% amplitude) 3 µs
Pulse rise and fall times 60 ns
Pulse height 12A

Find graphically the spectrum of the voltage across the capacitor.

For each breaking point and horizontal segment, indicate frequencies and
levels, both in volt and dB(V).

Capacitor has two zeroes, at

1 1
f z1 = = = 2.4kHz
2π ⋅ ESR ⋅ C 2π ⋅ 30mΩ ⋅ 2.2mF
ESR 30mΩ
fz2 = = = 53kHz
2π ⋅ ESL 2π ⋅ 90nH

The “flat” region is the 30 mΩ ESR, corresponding to

 30mΩ 
20 log  = −30.5 dB(Ω)
 1Ω 

Current spectrum has a low frequency value of

τ 3µs
I = 2 I pk = 2 12A = 14.4A (remember that the period T is the reciprocal of
T 5µs
repetition frequency, 200kHz) and two “poles” at
1 1 1 1
f1 = = = 106kHz and f2 = = = 106kHz
πτ π ⋅ 3µs π ⋅ t π ⋅ 60ns

Low frequency spectrum has a value in decibel referred to ampere given by

 !4.4A 
20 log  = 23.2dB(A)
 1A 
Observe that decibels are the logarithm of a DIMENSIOLESS RATIO! It’s
meaningless, actually strongly wrong, to take the logarithm of a quantity with
dimensions.

Graphs of capacitor impedance and current spectrum (upper bound…) are

given in this figure (blue capacitor, red current)

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 2 of 6

Noise voltage is obtained by adding graphically these two curves,
remembering to add also the respective slopes. Result is in green. The
leftmost part of the noise has not been evaluated because nobody cares of
what happens at those frequencies. The region from 53kHz up has been
calculated just because it was a convenient point to find the noise:
30mΩ x 14.1A=.432V

The first flat region values has been propagated to the second horizontal part,
using the 20dB/dec rule: frequency ratio equals gain (factor, not decibel!)
ratio. Second plateau starts at 106kHz, twice as much the ending frequency of
the first plateau, so its value will be double of .432V.
In decibes,l referred to 1V, it is given by: -30.5dB(Ω)+23.2dB(A)=-7.3dB(V).
If one has forgotten that doubling the amplitude equals adding 6dB, and wants
 .864V 
to calculate it explicitly: 20 log  = −1.3 dB(V)
 1V 

Extra credit: find analytically or numerically the real spectrum and compare it
with the upper bound you found graphically.
Here is the result of a LTSpice simulation of this circuit

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 3 of 6

Observe that there are some tricks to obtain a nice spectrum, like reduced
time step transient simulation, a long run to allow the system to reach its
steady state before collecting values, zero DC current, an integer number of
cycles to be transformed…

Here it’s quite evident the flat values to 5.3MHz and then a -20dB/dec slope.

4) Required attenuation

Compare the spectrum you obtained from problem 3 with the allowed
conducted emission as per CISPR 22 class A (QP) (figure 2.1b page 54).
Find graphically the filter attenuation needed to pass the CISPR 22 class A
(QP) standard. Remember that a LISN only measures one half of the total
noise. The filter mask is given in dB and must show negative numbers!

This is the graph of actual noise and allowed noise. I told you in class to
disregard the fact that LISN senses only one half of the actual noise: we need
at least 6dB margin because there will be also some common mode noise.

In green there is the actual noise, in blue the maximum given by CISPR22
and in red the required attenuation.

The required attenuation can be evaluated as a factor, dividing the noise you
can have by the noise you are actually generating, so initially the required
attenuation is

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 4 of 6

 8.9mV 1 4.5mV 1
A1 = = = .0103 and then A2 = = = .00521
864mV 97 864mV 192

This attenuation can be evaluated directly in decibel, just remember that you
have to convert 79dB(µV) into decibel referred to volts. This is done by
subtracting 120dB, because 1µV is one million times (120dB) smaller than 1V:
79 dB(µV)-120dB=-41 dB(V).

At this point we can find the attenuation in decibel:

A1(dB)=-41 dB(V)-(-1.3 dB(V))=-39.7 dB and similarly A2(dB)=-45.7 dB

Please observe and understand when to use dB(µV) and when dB. I do prefer
to work with factors, but you have the choice.

The most critical point, from a low pass filter point of view, is the leftmost
point. At 500kHz the required attenuation increases, but if you look at the
graph you see that frequency from 150kHz to 500kHz increases by a factor
larger than 3, whereas the required attenuation increases only by a factor of
2. Even a first order filter satisfying the leftmost point, also provide enough
attenuation for the 500kHz frequency.

5) Paralleling ceramic capacitors

A common way of attempting to overcome the low self-resonant frequency of

large value ceramic capacitors is to place a small value ceramic capacitor in
parallel to the large one. The intent is for the small capacitor to “take over” for
high frequencies, where the large capacitor is already inductive. The
equivalent circuit of two capacitors in parallel is:

Evaluate analytically the impedance Z, considering C1>>C2 and two equal

inductances (lead inductances).

( s 2C1L + 1)( s 2C2 L + 1)

The analytical result is Z ( s ) = where one can
CC
s (C1 + C2 )( s 2 1 2 L + 1)
C1 + C2
recognize in the denominator the series of C1 and C2. This expression tells us
that we have 2 pairs of complex conjugate zeros, and one pair of complex
conjugate poles. At the zero frequencies impedance goes to zero, acting like
a short circuit. At the pole frequency, impedance goes to infinity and this is
bad because we put 2 capacitors in parallel to improve their total impedance.
Paralleling capacitors to improve their overall behavior is usually not a good
idea.

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 5 of 6

Show the Bode plot of each branch (C1+L and C2+L), and of the parallel,
when L=10 nH, C1=22 nF, C2=220 nF. You can use spice (or other programs)
to find the plots. The graph must have logarithmic axes (frequency and
impedance). Impedance can be found using an AC voltage generator of 1V
and plotting the current through the impedance.

This is the simulated circuit. Using a voltage generator one can get easily the
total and branch impedances.

Analyze the behavior from 100 kHz to 1GHz. Do not add any resistance to the
circuit during your analysis.
Is there any frequency where the parallel impedance is greater than each
single capacitor?

This is the Bode plot of total impedance (green), and branch impedances (red,
C1 and blue C2).

In order to get the impedances, one has to plot 1/I(V1) using the fact that the
voltage source has been set to 1V.

Between 7MHz and 9MHz, the parallel impedance is larger than each of the
two branches in parallel. This is due to resonances, and in this frequency
band our capacitor is basically ineffective.

Prof. F. Maddaleno EECS267B page 6 of 6