1. ‘All elements that are present in a plant need not be essential to its survival’. Comment.

Plants tend to absorb different kinds of nutrients from soil. However, a nutrient is inessential for a plant if it is not involved in the
plant’s physiology and metabolism. For example, plants growing near radioactive sites tend to accumulate radioactive metals.
Similarly, gold and selenium get accumulated in plants growing near mining sites. However, this does not mean that radioactive
metals, gold, or selenium are essential nutrients for the survival of these plants.
2. Why is purification of water and nutrient salts so important in studies involving mineral nutrition using hydroponics?
Hydroponics is the art of growing plants in a nutrient solution in the absence of soil. Since the plant roots are exposed to a
limited amount of the solution, there are chances that the concentrations of oxygen and other minerals in the plant roots would
reduce. Therefore, in studies involving mineral nutrition using hydroponics, purification of water and nutrient salts is essential so
as to maintain an optimum growth of the plants.
3. Explain with examples: macronutrients, micronutrients, beneficial nutrients, toxic elements and essential elements.
Macronutrients: They are the nutrients required by plants in large amounts. They are present in plant tissues in amounts more
than 10 mmole kg–1 of dry matter. Examples include hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Micronutrients: They are also called trace elements and are present in plant bodies in very small amounts, i.e., amounts less
than 10 mmole kg– 1 of dry matter. Examples include cobalt, manganese, zinc, etc.
Beneficial nutrients: They are plant nutrients that may not be essential, but are beneficial to plants. Sodium, silicon, cobalt
and selenium are beneficial to higher plants.
Toxic elements: Micronutrients are required by plants in small quantities. An excess of these nutrients may induce toxicity in
plants. For example, when manganese is present in large amounts, it induces deficiencies of iron, magnesium, and calcium by
interfering with their metabolism.
Essential elements: These elements are absolutely necessary for plant growth and reproduction. The requirement of these
elements is specific and non-replaceable. They are further classified as macro and micro-nutrients.
4. Name at least five different deficiency symptoms in plants. Describe them and correlate them with the concerned mineral
deficiency.
The five main deficiency symptoms arising in plants are:
• Chlorosis
• Necrosis
• Inhibition of cell division
• Delayed flowering
• Stunted plant growth
Chlorosis or loss of chlorophyll leads to the yellowing of leaves. It is caused by the deficiencies of nitrogen, potassium,
magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc, and molybdenum.
Necrosis is the death of plant tissues as a result of the deficiencies of calcium, magnesium, copper, and potassium.
Inhibition of cell division is caused by the deficiencies of nitrogen, potassium, sulphur, and molybdenum.
Delayed flowering is caused by the deficiencies of nitrogen, sulphur, and molybdenum.
Stunted plant growth is a result of the deficiencies of copper and sulphur.
5. If a plant shows a symptom which could develop due to deficiency of more than one nutrient, how would you find out
experimentally, the real deficient mineral element?
In plants, the deficiency of a nutrient can cause multiple symptoms. For example, the deficiency of nitrogen causes chlorosis and
delayed flowering.
In a similar way, the deficiency of a nutrient can cause the same symptom as that caused by the deficiency of another nutrient.
For example, necrosis is caused by the deficiency of calcium, magnesium, copper, and potassium.
Another point to be considered is that different plants respond in different ways to the deficiency of the same nutrient.
Hence, to identify the nutrient deficient in a plant, all the symptoms developed in its different parts must be studied and
compared with the available standard tables.
6. Why is that in certain plants deficiency symptoms appear first in younger parts of the plant while in others they do so in
mature organs?
Deficiency symptoms are morphological changes in plants, indicating nutrient deficiency. Deficiency symptoms vary from one
element to another. The plant part in which a deficiency symptom occurs depends on the mobility of the deficient element in the
plant. Elements such as nitrogen, potassium, and magnesium are highly mobile. These elements move from the mature organs
to the younger parts of a plant. Therefore, the symptoms for the deficiencies of these elements first appear in the older parts of
the plant. Elements such as calcium and sulphur are relatively immobile. These elements are not transported out of the older
parts of a plant. Therefore, the symptoms for the deficiencies of these elements first appear in the younger parts of the plant.
7. How are the minerals absorbed by the plants?
The absorption of soil nutrients by the roots of plants occurs in two main phases – apoplast and symplast.
During the initial phase or apoplast, there is a rapid uptake of nutrients from the soil into the free spaces of plant cells. This
process is passive and it usually occurs through trans-membrane proteins and ion-channels.
In the second phase or symplast, the ions are taken slowly into the inner spaces of the cells. This pathway generally involves the
expenditure of energy in the form of ATP.
8. What are the conditions necessary for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by Rhizobium. What is their role in N2 -fixation?
Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacteria present in the root nodules of leguminous plants. The basic requirements for Rhizobium to
carry out nitrogen fixation are as follows:
(a) Presence of the enzyme nitrogenase
(b) Presence of leg-haemoglobin
(c) Non-haem iron protein, ferrodoxin as the electron-carrier
(d) Constant supply of ATP
(e) Mg2+ions as co-factors
Rhizobium contains the enzyme nitrogenase – a Mo-Fe protein – that helps in the conversion of atmospheric free nitrogen into
ammonia.
The reaction is as follows:
N2 + 8e– + 8H+ + 16 ATP→ 2 NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi
The Rhizobium bacteria live as aerobes under free-living conditions, but require anaerobic conditions during nitrogen fixation.
This is because the enzyme nitrogenase is highly sensitive to molecular oxygen. The nodules contain leg-haemoglobin, which
protects nitrogenase from oxygen.
9. What are the steps involved in formation of a root nodule?
 Multiple interactions are involved in the formation of root nodules. The Rhizobium bacteria divide and form colonies. These get attached
to the root hairs and epidermal cells. The root hairs get curled and are invaded by the bacteria. This invasion is followed by the formation
of an infection thread that carries the bacteria into the cortex of the root. The bacteria get modified into rod-shaped bacteroides. As a
result, the cells in the cortex and pericycle undergo division, leading to the formation of root nodules. The nodules finally get connected
with the vascular tissues of the roots for nutrient exchange.
10. Which of the following statements are true? If false, correct them:
(a) Boron deficiency leads to stout axis.
(b) Every mineral element that is present in a cell is needed by the cell.
(c) Nitrogen as a nutrient element, is highly immobile in the plants.
(d) It is very easy to establish the essentiality of micronutrients because they are required only in trace quantities.

(a) True
(b) All the mineral elements present in a cell are not needed by the cell. For example, plants growing near radioactive mining sites tend to
accumulate large amounts of radioactive compounds. These compounds are not essential for the plants.
(c) Nitrogen as a nutrient element is highly mobile in plants. It can be mobilised from the old and mature parts of a plant to its younger
parts.
(d) True
Plant nutrition
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for growth. In 1972, E. Epstein defined 2 criteria
for an element to be essential for plant growth: (1) in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle or (2)
that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite, this is all in accordance with Liebig's law of the
minimum. There are 17 essential plant nutrients. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients
including water are obtained from the soil. Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from the growing media.
• the three primary macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).
• the three secondary macronutrients such as calcium (Ca), sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg).
• the macronutrient Silicon (Si)
• and micronutrients or trace minerals: boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), and sodium (Na).
The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.2% to 4.0% (on a
dry matter weight basis). Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging
from 5 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weight.[3]
Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants with adequate nutrition and do not require fertilizer for a
complete life cycle. However, man can artificially modify soil through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous
growth and increase yield. The plants are able to obtain their required nutrients from the fertilizer added to the soil. A
colloidal carbonaceous residue, known as humus, can serve as a nutrient reservoir.[4] Besides lack of water and sunshine,
nutrient deficiency is a major growth limiting factor.
Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, where in root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil
through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the
cations are available for uptake by the root.
Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants
and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. An element present at a low level may cause
deficiency symptoms, while the same element at a higher level may cause toxicity. Further, deficiency of one element may
present as symptoms of toxicity from another element. An abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another
nutrient. Also a lowered availability of a given nutrient, such as SO2–4 can affect the uptake of another nutrient, such as
NO3–. Also, K+ uptake can be influenced by the amount NH4+ available.[4]
The root, especially the root hair, is the most essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and architecture of
the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the center of the root, the stele in order for the
nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem.[4] The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside of the stele but
within the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients to help regulate the uptake of nutrients and water.[4] Xylem
moves water and inorganic molecules within the plant and phloem counts organic molecule transportation. Water potential
plays a key role in a plants nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative within the plant than the surrounding
soils, the nutrients will move from the more higher solute (soil) concentration to lower solute concentration (plant).
There are 3 fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root: 1.) simple diffusion, occurs when a nonpolar
molecule, such as O2, CO2, and NH3 that follow a concentration gradient, can passively move through the lipid bilayer
membrane without the use of transport proteins. 2.) facilitated diffusion, is the rapid movement of solutes or ions
following a concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins. 3.) Active transport, is the active transport of ions or
molecules against a concentration gradient that requires an energy source, usually ATP, to pump the ions or molecules
through the membrane.[4]
Nutrients are moved inside a plant to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to supply more nutrients to
its younger leaves than its older ones. So when nutrients are mobile, the lack of nutrients is first visible on older leaves.
However, not all nutrients are equally mobile. When a less mobile nutrient is lacking, the younger leaves suffer because
the nutrient does not move up to them but stays lower in the older leaves. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile
nutrients, while the others have varying degrees of mobility. This phenomenon is helpful in determining what nutrients a
plant may be lacking.
A symbiotic relationship may exist with 1.) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, like rhizobia which are involved with nitrogen
fixation, and 2.) mycorrhiza, which help to create a larger root surface area. Both of these mutualistic relationships
enhance nutrient uptake.[4]
Though nitrogen is plentiful in the earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of
atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants therefore require nitrogen compounds to be present in the
soil in which they grow. These can either be supplied by decaying matter, nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, or
through the agricultural application of purpose made fertilizers.
Hydroponics, is growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-rich soil. It allows researchers and
home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment. The most common solution, is the Hoaglund Solution,
developed by D. R. Hoaglund in 1933, the solution consists of all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions
necessary for most plant growth.[4] An aerator is used to prevent an anoxic event or hypoxia. Hypoxia can affect nutrient
uptake of a plant because without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root cells. The Nutrient film
technique is a variation of hydroponic technique. The roots are not fully submerged which allows for adequate aeration of
the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient rich water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to
the plant.
Processes important to plant nutrition
Plants uptake essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air (mainly consisting of carbon and
oxygen) through their leaves.
In the leaves, transpiration occurs, where stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen that drives the
movement of water and nutrients to the plant[4] Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in
the air by the process of photosynthesis.
Functions of nutrients
Each of these nutrients is used in a different place for a different essential function.[5]
Macro nutrients
Carbon
Carbon forms the backbone of many plants biomolecules, including starches and cellulose. Carbon is fixed
through photosynthesis from the carbon dioxide in the air and is a part of the carbohydrates that store energy in
the plant.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen also is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained almost entirely from water.
Hydrogen ions are imperative for a proton gradient to help drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis and
for respiration.[4]
Oxygen
Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process of generating energy-rich
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via the consumption of sugars made in photosynthesis. Plants produce oxygen gas
during photosynthesis to produce glucose but then require oxygen to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and
break down this glucose and produce ATP.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in plant bioenergetics. As a component of ATP, phosphorus is needed for the conversion
of light energy to chemical energy (ATP) during photosynthesis. Phosphorus can also be used to modify the
activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and can be used for cell signalling. Since ATP can be used for the
biosynthesis of many plant biomolecules, phosphorus is important for plant growth and flower/seed formation.
Phosphate esters make up DNA, RNA, and phospholipids. Most common in the form of polyprotic phosphoric
acid (H3PO4) in soil, but it is taken up most readily in the form of H2PO4. Phosphorus is limited in most soils
because it is released very slowly from insoluble phosphates. Under most environmental conditions it is the
limiting element because of its small concentration in soil and high demand by plants and microorganisms. Plants
can increase phosphorus uptake by a mutualism with mycorrhiza.[4]
A Phosphorus deficiency in plants is characterized by an intense green coloration in leaves. If the plant is
experiencing high phosphorus deficiencies the leaves may become denatured and show signs of necrosis.
Occasionally the leaves may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin. Because phosphorus is a mobile
nutrient, older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency.
High phosphorus content fertilizers, such as bone meal, is useful to apply to perennials to help with successful
root formation.[4]
Potassium
Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stomata by a potassium ion pump. Since stomata are important
in water regulation, potassium reduces water loss from the leaves and increases drought tolerance. Potassium
deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal chlorosis. K+ is highly mobile and can aid in balancing the anion
charges within the plant. It also has high solubility in water and leaches out of soils that rocky or sandy that can
result in potassium deficiency. It serves as an activator of enzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration.
Potassium is used to build cellulose and aids in photosynthesis by the formation of a chlorophyll precursor.
Potassium deficiency may result in higher risk of pathogens, wilting, chlorosis, brown spotting, and higher
chances of damage from frost and heat.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an essential component of all proteins. Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow
growth, and chlorsis. Nitrogen deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and
underside of leaves from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigements[4]
Most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is from the soil in the forms of NO3–. Amino acids and proteins can only
be built from NH4+ so NO3– must be reduced. Under many agricultural settings, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient of
high growth. Some plants require more nitrogen than others, such as corn (Zea mays). Because nitrogen is mobile,
 the older leaves exhibit chlorosis and necrosis earlier than the younger leaves. Soluble forms of nitrogen are
transported as amines and amides.
Sulphur
Sulphur is a structural component of some amino acids and vitamins, and is essential in the manufacturing of
chloroplasts.
Calcium
Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of certain plant
enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting.
Magnesium
Magnesium is an important part of chlorophyll, a critical plant pigment important in photosynthesis. It is
important in the production of ATP through its role as an enzyme cofactor. There are many other biological roles
for magnesium—see Magnesium in biological systems for more information. Magnesium deficiency can result in
interveinal chlorosis.
Silicon
Silicon is deposited in cell walls and contributes to its mechanical properties including rigidity and elasticity
Micronutrients
Iron
Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron deficiency can result in
interveinal chlorosis and necrosis.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids.
Boron
Boron is important for binding of pectins in the RGII region of the primary cell wall, secondary roles may be in
sugar transport, cell division, and synthesizing certain enzymes. Boron deficiency causes necrosis in young leaves
and stunting.
Copper
Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis. Involved in many
enzyme processes. Necessary for proper photosythesis. Involved in the manufacture of lignin (cell walls).
Involved in grain production.
Manganese
Manganese is necessary for building the chloroplasts. Manganese deficiency may result in coloration
abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.
Sodium
Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. It can also substitute for
potassium in some circumstances.
Zinc
Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription. A typical
symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little leaf" and is caused by the
oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.
Nickel
In higher plants, Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen metabolism that is
required to process urea. Without Nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of necrotic
lesions. In lower plants, Nickel activates several enzymes involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for
Zinc and Iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.
Chlorine
Chlorine is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis.
Cobalt has proven to be beneficial to at least some plants, but is essential in others, such as legumes where it is required
for nitrogen fixation for the symbiotic relationship it has with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Vanadium may be required by
some plants, but at very low concentrations. It may also be substituting for molybdenum. Selenium and sodium may also
be beneficial. Sodium can replace potassium's regulation of stomatal opening and closing.