THE IMPACT OF 9/11 EVENT ON THE LIFE OF AMERICAN

MUSLIMS AS DEPICTED IN LAILA HALABY’S

ONCE IN A PROMISED LAND

A THESIS

Presented to the Board Examiners in Partial Fulfillments of

The Requirements for the Master’s Degree
in American Studies Program

BY
Zulfi Zumala Dwi Andriani
08/276154/ PMU/ 5546

AMERICAN STUDIES GRADUATE PROGRAM

UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA
YOGYAKARTA
2010
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Andriani iii
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DEDICATION

My thesis is dedicated to my child. You are the life-strengthening power who

always becomes my lovely companion while the father is away

 Andriani v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Bismillahirrahmanirrahim

Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin. Praise be to Allah SWT, the Almighty, the

All loving, and the Merciful for the abundant blessing and strength given to the

me without which I have never been able to accomplish this challenging thesis

writing.

First of all, I would like to dedicate and extend my heartfelt gratitude to

my thoughtful consultants and advisors, Prof. Ratno Lukito, M.A, Ph.D and Nur

Saktiningrum, S.S, M.Hum for their invaluable times, their patience, excellent

ideas, accommodative criticism and constructive comments. I really owe much to

their valuable advice and guidance for me in finishing this thesis writing. My

sincere gratitude is also presented to Drs. Dafri Agussalim, M.A, my respectful

thesis reader, and for all my lectures in American Studies program with whom I

learn and discuss the excellent knowledge during my study in Gadjah Mada

University.

My true gratefulness is devoted to my adorable family, Abah and ibu, my

sisters and my brother for their biggest material and spiritual support. I also

convey my thankfulness for my family in law in Jombang for enlightening my

“new world”.

I would like to give my best gratitude to my beloved husband, M. Alaika

Nasrulloh for his endless love, valuable support, and a long day short messages

and calling during my absence beside him.

 Andriani vi

My heartfelt gratitude also goes for my classmates in American Studies

program 08’, especially for Dewi, Elok, Corry and Itsna. I also address my

thankfulness for my UIN Malang group, Tojib, Ghozi and Dini for their supports

and beautiful friendship.

The last but not the least, I would like to thank my friends in Jogja,

especially for mbak Nina Mariani and tante Hilda for their time to edit and to

check my thesis writing. I thank all my friends in Kentungan boarding house;

Ayu, Vita, Alfi, Tari, Sukma for the togetherness and friendship.

Finally, I realize that this thesis is still far from perfection. Thus, I always

appreciate for the coming constructive comments. Hopefully this academic work

can give a valuable contribution in learning of American experiences.

Yogyakarta, 27 Juli 2010

Zulfi Zumala Dwi Andriani

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Approval Sheet ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ii

Pernyataan/Declaration iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract ix

Intisari x

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of Problems 7
1.3 Objective of the Study 7
1.4 Scope of the Study 8
1.5 Significance of the Study 8
1.6 Literary Review 9
1.7 Theoretical Framework 11
1.8 Method of Research 16
1.9 Thesis Presentation 17
 Andriani viii

CHAPTER II: ISLAM AND MUSLIMS IN AMERICA 19

2.1 The Coming of Islam in America 19

2.2 The Shaping of Muslims Immigrants Identity in America 23

2.3 The Shaping Perception of Americans toward American Muslims 28

2.4 Islamophobia 34

2.5 Islam in American Pluralistic Context 37

2.6 Media Coverage on American Muslims 43

CHAPTER III: THE PORTRAIT OF AMERICAN MUSLIMS LIFE

AFTER 9/11 49
3.1 Discrimination and Prejudice Based on the Race and Religion 56

3.2 Racial Stereotype of American Muslims 66

3.3 Racial Hatred 72

3.4 Displacement 75

3.5 The Curiosity on Americans about Islam and their Sympathy toward

American Muslims 78

CHAPTER IV: THE IMAGE OF AMERICAN MUSLIMS IN MEDIA

AFTER 9/11 84

4.1 Image and Perception toward American Muslims in Radio 86

4.2 Image and Perception toward American Muslims in Television 94

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 103

REFERENCES 106
 Andriani ix

ABSTRACT

THE IMPACT OF 9/11 EVENT ON THE LIFE OF AMERICAN

MUSLIMS AS DEPICTED IN LAILA HALABY’S
ONCE IN A PROMISED LAND

Zulfi Zumala Dwi Andriani

This thesis discusses the effect of 9/11 event which is illustrated in Laila
Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land. Since the discussion includes American
Muslims survival after 9/11, the objectives of this study are to gain some
depictions of American Muslims and to reveal American media coverage on them
regarding as the effect of 9/11.
Since all the data used in this research are written text, library research is
applied for the method of collecting data. The novel of Laila Halaby’s Once in
Promised Land is classified as the primary datum, while the secondary data are
taken from the books, articles, review, research reports as well as electronic
sources. The data then are analyzed through critical analysis and critical
interpretation and presented in the descriptive manner. To achieve objective of the
study, this study applies sociology literary theory which insists on linking a
society and its manner of people where the literary work is created. Since the
primary datum of this study is literary work and interpreting social reality through
it, the researcher also applies hermeneutics theory to gain scientific interpretation
of the text.
This research turns on some points conclusions that there are two opposite
effect of 9/11 to American Muslims regarding to their identity. The negative one,
they experience some miserable moments such as discrimination, prejudice,
excessive hatred and displacement. At the same time, they also encounter
American’s sympathy and the increasing of American curiosity about Islam.
Media also covers the image of American Muslims in fair treatment and news,
while the negative one tends to be bias and unfair in presenting news regarding to
Islam and Muslims

Keywords : The event of 9/11, Islam, American Muslims, American Perception.

 Andriani x

INTISARI

THE IMPACT OF 9/11 EVENT ON THE LIFE OF AMERICAN

MUSLIMS AS DEPICTED IN LAILA HALABY’S
ONCE IN A PROMISED LAND

Zulfi Zumala Dwi Andriani

Tesis ini membahas tentang dampak dari peristiwa 9 /11 peristiwa yang
digambarkan dalam karya Laila Halaby yang berjudul Once in a Promised
Land. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan beberapa gambaran
Muslim AS dan bagaimana liputan media Amerika dalam mengungkapkan posisi
Muslim AS sebagai akibat dari peristiwa 9/11 yang tercermin pada karya Laila
Halaby, Once in a Promised Land.
Karena semua data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berbentuk teks
tertulis, penelitian perpustakaan diterapkan untuk metode pengumpulan
data. Novel Laila Halaby's Once in a Promised Land sebagai data primer,
sedangkan data sekunder diambil dari buku, artikel, review, laporan penelitian
serta sumber-sumber elektronik. Data kemudian dianalisis melalui analisis kritis
dan penafsiran kritis dan disajikan dengan cara deskriptif.
Untuk mencapai tujuan penelitian, penelitian ini menggunakan teori
sosiologi sastra yang menekankan hubungan masyarakat dan karya sastra.Karena
data primer dari penelitian ini adalah karya sastra dan menafsirkan realitas sosial
melalui itu, peneliti juga memakai teori hermeneutika untuk mendapatkan
interpretasi teks yang akurat.
Penelitian ini menghasilkan beberapa poin kesimpulan bahwa ada dua
efek berlawanan dari peristiwa 9/11 bagi Muslim AS sehubungan dengan identitas
mereka. Efek negatif terlihat dari beberapa peristiwa yang harus mereka alami
seperti diskriminasi, prasangka, kebencian berlebihan dan Keterasingan.Pada saat
yang sama, mereka juga menemukan simpati orang-orang Amerika dan
meningkatnya rasa ingin tahu orang- orang Amerika tentang Islam. Efek ini juga
terlihat pada media barat dalam menggambarkan Muslim AS, sebagian media
mempunyai pandangan positif terhadap Muslim dengan memberikan berita yang
proporsional tentang posisi Muslim dalam peristiwa 9/11, sedangkan sebagian lagi
menggambarkan Muslim dengan cara yang tidak fair, seperti menyebutkan bahwa
Muslim adalah orang yang harus bertanggungjawab pada peristiwa 9/11.

Kata Kunci : Peristiwa 9/11, Islam, Muslim Amerika, Persepsi Orang Amerika.
 Andriani 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The event of bombing toward Pentagon and World Trade Center in New

York at September, 11 2001 has affected the opinion and attitude of Americans

toward Muslims, especially Arabs. After the tragedy of Sept. 11, it is obvious that

Americans know little about Arabs and Muslims. It is important for American

Muslims to denounce terrorism and reclaim Islam as a religion of peace in the

eyes of an injured America.

The event of 9/11 has left the traumatic sense toward Americans in

general and especially for Americans Muslims, because they are accused to be

responsible in that attack. It is believed that the terrorist were Middle Eastern and

or Muslims, civil disturbances have erupted throughout the United States targeting

Americans of Arabic descent, Americans of the Islamic faith, and Americans who

were stereotyped as Arab and Muslim-Americans (Elaasar 58).

The perception of Americans toward Muslims is greater after the event of

9/11. This event has two opposite sides of effect; positive and negative effect. The

negative effect can be seen from the dramatic events of anti-Islam, in his article

Muslims in America after 9/11, Nimer exposes the data from CAIR (Council on

American- Islamic Relations), the organization dedicated to identifying and

combating anti-Muslim prejudice in the United State. It is said that there are 1717

reports of harassment, violence, and other discriminatory acts to Muslims in the

 Andriani 2

first six months after the attack (2002). Others alleged job discrimination and a

small number reported physical assault. Nearly 60 percent of American Muslims

said that they worry more about their families' future than before the attacks. The

Arab-American Anti Discrimination Committee put together a report on hate

crimes and discrimination against Arab Americans since 9/11 in 2003. There are

countless cases of airline discrimination, job discrimination, and even cases where

banks denied services to Arab or Muslim Americans (Elaasar 73).

The Western media, especially American media also contributed in

shaping the perception toward Muslims. A search of the Nexis Computer database

of United Press, and Reuters during the forty- eight hours following the hijacked

plane on World Trade Center and Pentagon yielded 138 articles containing the

words “Muslims” and “Arabs” in connection with the tragedy (ed. Bukhari 174).

Muslims reported a rash of attacks following the false of accusations, promulgated

in almost all the media.

There are some scholars who initiate to analyze the perception of western

media toward Muslims and Islam, one of them is Edward Said in his book

Covering Islam. Said says that western media provide some stereotypes toward

Islam, it can be identified that Middle Eastern generally, Islam and Arab are

classified as terrorism, the Middle East is a place where violating and harassment

often occur (88-89). The research which is conducted by communiqué partner on

the perception of Western on Muslims reported that Muslim and Islam is viewed

negatively especially those Arab descent, the common stereotypes of Muslim

include terrorist, anti-American, religious zealot (using Islam to justify militant

 Andriani 3

extremist), anti-modernity, anti-feminist, and anti-democracy (10). From the

point of Said’s analyses and Communiqué research, it can be seen that Western

media has contributed in shaping the perception toward Muslim in general and

Arab especially.

The event of 9/11 places and makes Muslims as the new enemy of the

West, as stated by Hadad in her introduction of the book Islam and the West post

9/11, that the choice of locations for attack would suggest that the targets have

been chosen in places where the West and Islam most interact each other (6), the

twin towers of World Trade Center, is a symbol of Wall Street and the economic

strength of America, pentagon is post of U.S army and U.S Capitol building is the

symbol of American democracy (Rauf X). It shapes the apprehension feeling

among American, no country will endure from this kind of attack without

responding by condemning it.

The event of 9/11 has brought the greatest impact to the relation of West

and Muslims, especially between Americans and American Muslim. September,

11 2001 is the moment will be remembered by mostly American, the event which

generates America to propose War of Terror and which sorts misconception of

Islam among American people toward Muslim and Arab descendent especially

(1).

As stated before that the event of 9/11 also has the positive effect in the

life of American religion and in the relation between American and Muslims. This

event lingers on the visibility of Islam in America. Many Americans eager to

know more about Islam, the image of Islam is not something that a lot of people
 Andriani 4

know about the prior of 9/11. Many books and lectures about Islam are presented

in America to give more understanding about Islam. The biggest question in

Americans’ mind is “why do Muslims hate us?” President George Bush proposes

a kind of communication toward public that Islam is religion of peace and Islam is

against terrorism and 9/11 attack. In his article, Nimer also poses that on

September 17, dozens of scholar Islam at major colleges and universities

throughout the country speaking against terrorism, clarifying the Islamic position

on the attacks and expressing for grieving family members (Nimer 9).

The event of 9/11 has attracted many writers to write books with the

general theme of 9/11, some books expose the correlation of Islam and terrorism

and some others write about the deep knowledge about Islam in order to give

better understanding and clarification about Islam. The event of 9/11 also

encourages the American Arab writer, Laila Halaby to write her second novel,

Once In a Promised Land. Halaby is a woman of Arab descendent. She

immigrated to the United States when she was a child in the late of '60s. Her

father stayed behind. When she was 5, she came with her mother to live in

Tucson, where she's lived ever since

(http://www.tucsonweekly.com/tucson/pick/Content?oid=1072358, browsed at 8,

Januari 2010).

Halaby exposes some experiences which have to be faced by Americans

Muslims, especially Jordanian immigrant after 9/11. Through her characters,

Halaby shows us the obstacles, fears and hope of American Muslims, especially

after the greatest attack of WTC and Pentagon. The life of Americans Muslims
 Andriani 5

has changed drastically after the event 9/11. Those depiction are well uncovered

by Halaby through her central characters in the novel; the couple of Jordanian

immigrants, Hadad and Salwa. They have been Americans for nine years after

their marriage in Jordan. They live in Tucson, a city some kilometers from the

“ground zero” of New York. Their life has changed as the result of 9/11 attack.

They have to face some racial discriminations and the dilemma of identity, the

condition which need to be contemplated regarding their identity as Americans

and as Muslims.

Besides, the uniqueness of this literary work is providing the depiction of

Arab immigrants experience in a kind of “a promised land” as the title of the

novel, which they refer to as American land. As told in the novel, they came to

America for the sake of better life and destiny. For many immigrants who came to

America, America is a promised land which provides the good opportunity in

religion and education, and freedom of religion (Pallegrini, 1986). The promised

of happiness, many immigrants around the world came to America and enrich the

culture of America.

From the title of the novel, we can infer that Halaby wants to explore the

story about Jordanian immigrants who stay in America for the sake of their dream

to be success people. Otherwise, the event of 9/11 has changed their lives. From

this novel, it can be acquired about the depiction of minority ethnic in America.

The story of Halaby’s novel is constructed to give a glimpse of American

Muslim sketch of life and the way it changes as the effect of 9/11 events. The
 Andriani 6

event sorts the misconception among American non-Muslims toward Muslims

and Arab descent, which tends to treat them as the enemy of the State.

The way Halaby presents the Americans Muslims and the event of 9/11

is distinctive and unique; she constructs the narrative in the form of literary work.

It is appropriate to the function of literary work as the mirror of society. Abrams

in his book, Mirror and the Lamp said that art is mirror; it is the reflection of

object and event (34). Ratna also stated that literary work is a part of society; it is

interpreted through human intelligence to discern the events of certain period time

(169). Halaby’s novel Once in a Promised Land offers some experiences and

understanding of the American Muslims life through the distinctive way.

As an Arab-American writer who has the first hand experience of the

impact of 9/11 event in America society, Halaby’s writing is much influenced by

her experiences. Halaby and her two main characters are in the same position as

Arab American, they come from Jordan and go through same obstacles as

Muslims who have been blamed for the 9/11 attack. In this concern literary work

is viewed as the expression of writer; it is produced by author through their very

own contemplation or thoughts. Literary work is a product of inner searching

towards real life around and through imagination and literary works is an

expression of a deep thought and feeling of the author.

Considering those reasoning backgrounds, this research is conducted to

expose American Muslims experiences after 9/11 namely their survival, their

obstacles, and their hope as American and as Muslims. The research will analyze

Laila Halaby’s novel Once in a Promised Land as the primary object of the
 Andriani 7

research. This research is needed to be conducted to look at the impact of 9/11 to

the certain minority’s ethnic and minority’s religion through literary work which

is self-written by Arab American Muslim writer and also to reveal the Americans

perception toward American Muslims as the effect of the event of 9/11.

1.2 Statement of Problems

From the explanations above, this study is aimed at answering the

following question:

1. How is the effect of 9/11 to the life of American Muslims as depicted

in Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land?

2. How is media coverage on American Muslims after 9/11 as depicted in

Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land?

1.3 Objective of the Study

The objectives of the study are to analyze deeply and to give answers to

the problem mentioned in the previous section. Therefore, the research conducted

to find out and to know the portrait of American Muslim regarding to the effect of

9/11 as depicted by Laila Halaby’s in Once in a Promised Land, and to reveal

media coverage on American Muslims, especially to the respond of 9/11 event as

reflected in Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land.

 Andriani 8

1.4 Scope of the Study

Furthermore, this study has particular scope and limit in order to set a

specific and organized the field of study and investigation. This research has the

scope discussions on revealing particular aspect in Laila Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land as the primary data in this research. The first scope discussion is

the research discusses about Americans Muslims immigrants who come from

Jordan and who live in Tucson Arizona after the event of 9/11 as the characters

told in the novel. It relates to the exploring analysis on the effect of 9/11 event to

the American Muslims, including the survival and roles that are how an ethnic

group often receives negative perception and how they can cope it.

The second scope discussion is the research highlights media coverage on

American Muslims especially after 9/11 as depicted in Laila Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research is conducted to reveal Americans Muslims’ life especially

after 9/11 event. To be acquainted with the life of the American Muslims life after

9/11 is the critical one since Muslim is the part of American society. The high

tension of relationship between Americans and Muslims after 9/11 event is

important to be analyzed since it related to the reality of American society. It is

hoped to give more contribution to the study of minority ethnics in America and

get a better and deeper understanding of American Muslims experience in

America.
 Andriani 9

Another significance of this research is to provide a kind of reference to

some students who concern and are interested in the same topic. It is hoped to

stimulate and to motivate many other students to conduct other researches related

to the American Muslims especially analyzing Arab-American literature.

1.6 Literary Review

There are some researches and books which have discussed about the

impact of September.11 2001. They have general theme on 9/11 but in the various

kinds of perspectives. One of them is Geneive Abdo’s book Mecca and Main

Street; Muslim Life in America After 9/11. The book contains of eight testimonials

from many American Muslims who shared their experiences regarding to the

effect of 9/11. It reveals the searching of identity by Muslims group in America.

The event of 9/11 has challenged Muslims to keep their faith on being Muslim or

being America. The testimonials in this book give such kind of information about

the experience and the portrait of Muslims after 9/11 to the researcher. This book

gives benefit for the additional information in this research. This book also has

similarity to this research in the term of American Muslim live after 9/11, but it

has different form; the book contains of testimonials while the object of this

research is novel.

There is also literary work which has the same theme as Laila Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land in term of 9/11 event, that is a novel which is written by

Frédéric Beigbeder entitled Windows on the World. The story offers a

hypothetical minute-by-minute account narrated by a father who is accompanied

 Andriani 10

by his two sons (ages 7 and 9) who are having a tourist-style breakfast at

Windows on the World restaurant on the 107th floor of the World Trade Center

on the morning of September 11, 2001. Each chapter, averaging three pages a

piece, represents one minute from the time the building is hit at 8:46am to its

collapse at 10:28am. Although this work has the similarity in depicting 9/11, but it

has strong differences in some aspects, such as the nationality of the writer and the

object of the story. Windows on the World is written by French writer, who do not

has intense experience as Laila Halaby who experienced some changes after 9/11

regarding to her identity as Arab and Muslims. The object of the story is the

struggle life of family in the day of 9/11 attack, while Halaby offers the story that

focused on the impact of 9/11 to American Muslims. From some similarities and

differences, it can be known that Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land is

distinctive literary work and interested to be analyzed.

Since this research also reveals the perception of American toward

Muslim, the previous studies on this object is urgent to be regarded. Western

Perception of Islam and Muslims; a Study of Public Opinion and the Role of

Media in the United Stated and Western Europe is the study which is conducted

by Communique Partner, a leading San-Francisco-based Market intelligence

consultancy. This research focuses on the role of media in shaping the perception

of Western communities toward Muslim especially after the event of 9/11. The

study used some components such as public opinion poll online, interview of

Islamic and media experts, a quantitative analysis on offline and online media and

the last is the review and summary of reported sources and important books on the
 Andriani 11

topic researched. The study shows that media has the important role in shaping

the perspective of Western to the Muslims; there are some stereotypes of Muslims

and Islam on media for instance Islam as terrorist, anti modernity, anti human

right, and anti-democracy etc (9). The study which is done by communiqué

partner has the similarity to this research in the relation of media coverage on

American Muslims and the perception of American toward Muslims.

There is also a thesis discussed about American Muslims which is

conducted by Atri Dewi Aziz, a student of American Studies Gadjah Mada

University. In her thesis entitled Dinamika Kehidupan Masyarakat Muslim di

Amerika Serikat, she highlights the historical development of Muslims in America

from the early coming in the slavery era until the recent development after 9/11.

The discussion covers up the history of Muslim arrival in America, the obstacles

faced by Muslims in America and American perception toward Muslims.

From those sources and previous studies, it can be seen that the research

on American Muslims life after 9/11 in Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land

is the new and genuine one, since there is no research on that literary work and the

same topic which take the literary work for the object material of the research.

1.7 Theoretical Framework

Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land is classified as American

popular fiction. As Cawelty explains in his book about the popular story formula,

this novel is categorized as melodrama type formula since the content of Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land depicts the characters in the context of large and violent
 Andriani 12

public events (265). Mostly, melodrama concerns on the social setting and the

moral teaching. The works of melodrama usually becomes as documented event

which represents the events in certain period. It is on the same way as Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land, since this novel represents the effect of 9/11 toward

American Muslims which is combined by the ultimate morality of the characters.

Although Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land is classified as American

popular literature, but this research does not use formulaic analysis as the main

object of research, since it considers to the discussion about the effect of 9/11

event toward American Muslims. The using of formulaic analysis which is the

main object in popular literature does not core to answer the problem statements

of this research which tends to be analysis of sociology literature which links the

literary work and the society. Since this research takes American Muslims society

and American Muslims literature as the focus of analysis, the sociology of

literature seems to be adequate to employ in order to bridge the issues of

Americans Muslims society and its literature.

It is applied as the efforts for the writer to consider a society and its

manner of people where the literary work created, which are American Muslim.

The interconnection of literary work and the social reality created the sociological

approach for literature. Sociological theory is a combination of observations and

insights that offer a systematic explanation of life, because literary work tries to

be the media in showing the changing society.

Furthermore, the correlation between literary work and social reality is

also leads the idea of social realism which was conducted by George Lukacs.
 Andriani 13

Lukacs’ thought based on the suggestion of Hegel who treats literary works as

reflection of an unfolding system, the realist work must reveal some patterns in

social system. The characteristics of Lukacs thought is the “Reflection”, he insists

that:

The novel reflects reality, not by rendering its mere surface appearance,

but by giving us “a truer, more complete, more vivid and more dynamic

reflection of reality. To reflect is to frame a mental structure.”

(Selden 28)

Lukacs idea gives us some crucial components to the relation of social

reality and literary work. Lukacs argues that the author of literary work must

reveal the reality of society not only in the surface but deeply (in Fokkema and

Kunne Ibsch 124), Lukacs adds that the important thing is the involvement of

author in the society which is written in his or her literary work. This is also

supported by Ratna’s idea which said that sociology of literature signifies the

reliability and the detailed society which was portrayed in literary work (Ratna

164). For Lukacs, the aspect of realism in literary work is the important thing

since it will reveal the reality of society which the author described in the literary

work.

The theory of Lukacs, realism is used on this research in the relation of

literary work as the portrait of society. It will reveal how literary work depicts

certain minority group society in America in the relation of the event of 9/11.

Since, the activity of this research is finding social reality through

interpreting literary work, this research also employs hermeneutics approach. This
 Andriani 14

approach is proposed to gain scientific interpretation on the deep level meaning of

the text, it is based on the definition of Hermeneutics as the process of

understanding and interpretation.

In the beginning, hermeneutics is used to interpret Bible in order to get the

scientific meaning from the Bible text, but as the developing of period it has

changed as the interpretation method which is applicable for the general text, such

as literary work (Eagleton 66).

Hermeneutics is rooted from the Greek verb herméneuein, generally

translated “to interpret”, and the noun herméneia has the meaning “interpretation”

(Palmer 12). The Greek word of herménia is associated to the wing-footed

messenger God Hermes who signified the transmuting what is beyond human

understanding into a form that human intelligence can grasp. It suggests the

process of bringing a thing or situation from unintelligibility to understanding.

The process of understanding which associated to Hermes is traced to the

three basic direction of meanings of herménia and herméneuein in ancient usage,

they refer to “to say”, “to explain”, and “to translate”. These three dimensions are

classified as the traditional of hermeneutics which will be applied to this research

as the way to interpret literary text (14).

In interpreting literary work, those three dimensions are very important,

since the function of literary work is to be interpreted. The first dimension is “to

say”. In this context, text is treated as a sound and expression, while interpretation

is a form of saying. Text as sound is derived from the function of language which

is not mere as the sign but also as sound. Since, literature derives much of its
 Andriani 15

dynamism from the power of spoken world; the interpreter must grasp the

meaning of the words in order to express even one sentence in order to get the

deep meaning of the text (16). From this dimension, “to say” it will be considered

the power of language in the text in deriving meaning for the process of

interpretation.

The second dimension is “to explain”. This dimension is considering the

assumption which defines that words or text do not merely say something but they

have to explain something, rationalize it and make it clear (20). Furthermore, Karl

Otto Apel, who famous of his dialect hermeneutics thought, integrates between

explanations (Erklaren) and understanding (Verstehen) in the context of

interpretation (in Manuaba, 2001). Apel said that the interpreter must have the

background of knowledge and qualification in interpreting the text. Palmer also

adds that the interpreter must have a kind of “pre-understanding” to the text. (28).

Pre-understanding is the important process in the communication between text

and the interpreter, and the function of hermeneutics is to accommodate it. The

dimension of “to explain” in the literary criticism is to set the basic foundation of

pre-understanding process.

The third dimension is “to translate”. This last dimension has the similar

function as the two dimensions. In this dimension, interpreting means “to

translate”. Translation is a special form of the basic interpretative process of

“bringing to understanding”. In this case, the interpreter brings what is foreign,

strange and unintelligible into the medium of his or her own language to get

something meaningful based on the significance of literary work. The

 Andriani 16

phenomenon of translation is the heart of hermeneutics; in it the interpreter

clashes the basic hermeneutical situation to reconcile the meaning of the text,

grammatical and historical to decipher the text.

From the integration of sociological approach, realism of George Lukacs

and Hermeneutic it is hoped to be able gaining scientific interpretation of literary

work and relate it in the dimension of society as the object of literary work.

1.8 Method of Research

In this research, there are two types of methods; they are method of

collecting data and method of analyzing data. In the method of collecting data,

this research is classified as library research, since the data are taken from the

library in the form of collection of books, articles, reviews, research reports,

critical essay, and other available printed materials gathered from the libraries as

well as electronic sources as the data needed to investigate the topic selected.

Those data are at least divided into the primary data and the secondary one; the

novel of Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land is categorized as the primary

data, whereas the secondary data are taken from any other books, journal, research

reviews which support to the literary work under the theme of the research. Mary,

W. George in her book The Element of Library Research explains the process of

library research as investigation involving accepted fact, unknown, speculations,

logical procedures, verification, evaluation, repetition and ultimately

interpretation of findings that extend understanding (40). This definition then

arouses the next step of the research that is data analyzing.

 Andriani 17

After collecting the data, the next step is analyzing the data based on the

formulated problems of research. The data is analyzed using two ways; the first is

critical analysis to the collected data which has relevance to the material object

researched. The second one is critical interpretation to the data collected, and the

result will be presented in descriptive manner to answer explicitly of the problems

statement.

1.9 Presentation

This research tries to present the discussion as in order as possible by

clearly separating the topic of each part or chapter. It is divided into five chapters.

The first part is chapter one presenting the introduction of the thesis and

delivering the general idea covering the whole paper. It covers the background of

the subject, significance of the study, the statement of the problems, the objectives

and scope of the study, literary review, theoretical framework, method of study,

and presentation.

Chapter two provides the background information about religious life in

America. It tells about the history of Muslims presence in America, how they

assimilate in the broader context of American society and how they shape their

identity in America. In this chapter, it will also explain about the contribution of

media in shaping the perception toward American Muslims after 9/11. This

information is hoped to give detailed portrait of Muslim in America, how do their

live changes after the event of 9/11 and how is the significance of media in

shaping the perception toward American Muslims

 Andriani 18

Chapter three is analyzing of the novel to provide the explicit answer to

the problems statement. This chapter devotes to the portrait of American Muslim

Life after 9/11 in Laila Halabay’s Once in a Promised Land.

Chapter four discuss about media coverage on American Muslims after

9/11 which is seen from the image of Muslims in media such as in television and

radio as depicted in Laila Halabay’s Once in a Promised Land.

The last chapter denotes to the conclusion of the research, it will provide

the answer of the research problems based on the analysis of the literary work.
 Andriani 19

CHAPTER II
ISLAM AND MUSLIMS IN AMERICA

2.1 The coming of Islam in America

Before discussing the coming of Islam in America, it is important to know

who are identified as Muslims in America. As mentioned by Leonard in his

writing on American Muslims, before and After September 11, 2001. He

categorizes and counts who is called as American Muslims. He puts African

American at 42 percent, South Asians at 24,4 percent, Arabs at 14,4 percent,

Africans at 6,2 percent, Iranian at 3.6 percent, South East Asia at 2 percent,

European Americans at 1,6 percent, and others at 5,4 percent (2293). This

statistics data shows the diversity and the origin ethnic of Muslims immigrants in

America.

Another source classifies Muslims in America into three categories; they

are Muslim immigrants, and Americans who convert to Islam and those who were

born from the first two groups as Muslims (Numan, 1992). There are also non

immigrants Muslims in America such as Muslim college students who study in

America, and some Muslim diplomats who work in America. But their residence

is temporary because someday they have to go back to their own country.

Now, the number of Muslims in America rises significantly but there is no

accurate count of the number Muslims in America because the U.S. Census

Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. The most commonly

accepted figure, it estimates of 1.2 million to 3 million (Stone 25). To date, no

 Andriani 20

systematic valid survey of Muslims in America has been conducted. This is

largely because of lack reliable information about Muslims in America.

The coming of Islam in America cannot be separated from the coming of

African and Muslim immigrants from some Arab countries. There is no official

document which mentions the early coming of Islam in America, but it has been

said in Smith’s book Islam in America that there are five waves of the coming of

Islam in America. The first wave began in 1875 and ended in 1912, they came

from rural areas of what was then called Greater Syria under the rule of Ottoman

Empire, currently Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Lebanon (52). Some of the earliest

Muslim communities stayed in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, North Dakota, Indiana and

Michigan City (Mc Cloud 21).

The early Muslim immigrants came to America when racism and nativism

were paramount, when “Anglo-Conformity was promoted as the norm for

citizenship and the protestant determines what is American (Haddad 4). Because

of this condition, many Muslim immigrants have to assimilate and integrate to

become American. Their names were changed to sound more America such as

Muhammad became Mo, Ali became Al and etc.

The second wave happened at the end of World War I in 1921 to 1924.

Many Muslims who came to America were the relatives of Muslims who had

already emigrated and settled in America. The following wave was in the late

1930, it was open officially for relatives of Muslims who had established

themselves in America, and it caused the number of Muslim immigrants did not

raise significantly.
 Andriani 21

The fourth wave began at 1947 until 1960. In this wave, Muslim

immigrants did not only come from Middle East but also from India, Pakistan and

some countries from Eastern Europe such as Albania, Yugoslavia and Soviet

Union. Most of these arrivals settled in large cities such as Chicago and New

York. These immigrants were well educated and had urban background.

The last wave was begun at 1967. This wave was much influenced by both

decision of internal America Policy and the condition of several Islamic countries.

President Lyndon Johnson signed the regulation of immigration based on the

national diversity within United States, because of the decline of European

immigrants and the raise of Middle Eastern immigrants. The internal conflicts

within some Islamic countries had caused the high number of immigrants, such as

the 1979 revolution in Iran and Lebanese civil War.

The internal conflict within Islamic countries such as civil wars and

western exploitation, which have called them as “collateral damage” of American

foreign policy in some countries such as Algeria, Iraq, Lebanon, Somalia, and

Palestine influenced the number of Muslims immigrants to America. Most of the

immigrants were refugees from those conflict countries. Smith (1999) explains

that the Iranian revolution in 1979 has forced many Iranians to flee from their

country and decided to come to America, civil war in Pakistan and the breaking

away of East Pakistan to form Bangladesh, the anti-Muslims activist in India, the

military coup in Afghanistan, and the Lebanese civil war have contributed to the

Muslims presence in America. The other factors also contributed in increasing the
 Andriani 22

number of Muslims in America such as Iraqi Kurds problems, civil war in

Afghanistan and Somalia, and the ethnic cleansing in Bosnia.

The increasing number of Muslim immigrants to America is because of

their survival from their conflict countries. They look for better life in America, as

Haddad said that the significance of their immigration is concerning to the

survival than the issues of assimilation (7). Moreover, some of them see that

America provides the freedom for their life.

The geographical concentration of Muslims in America based on the

estimate of census statistic data which was conducted in 1980, shows that there

are three states with high Muslims immigrants population; California, New York,

and Illinois (Stone 29). The concentration of Muslims immigrants in America is

also in Detroit and Toledo, because these areas included as the factory-oriented

job regions. Based on the article of David and Ayouby, Detroit now becomes the

region which has the largest community and highest population of Arab in

America. The aspect of Arabs can be seen in the area of Detroit, such as

decorating of the windows Arabic groceries and restaurant, and the sound of call

prayer from variety of mosque and the clothing of elderly men and women who

have not yet been affected by American culture (125).

 Andriani 23

2.2 The Shaping of Muslims Immigrants Identity in America

In discussing the shaping of Muslim immigrants identity in America,

discussing about the process of assimilation and the process of adjustment

between Arab Muslims immigrants and Americans is undeniable. Those include

how Muslim immigrants perceive the American culture, how they become

American citizen, and how Americans perceive the presence of Muslim

immigrants.

Assimilation as defined by Joseph Fichter (in Milton 65) is:

A social process through which two or more persons or groups accept and

perform one another’s patterns of behavior. We commonly talk about a

person, or a minority category, being assimilated into a group or a society,

but here again this must not be interpreted as “one-sided process”. It is

relation of interaction in which both parties behave reciprocally even

though one may be much more affected than the other.

Regarding to that definition, assimilation is seen as the process of dealing

with absorption and integration of immigrants to the majority host culture of

America. The early American society which was dominated by Christians

challenged the process of assimilation of Muslim immigrants because they

never feel in Diaspora and live in the secular country. The American history

records that in the early building of American nation, the differentiation

between religion and society was still obscure because the early people who

came to the America were homogenous; many of them were European and
 Andriani 24

Christian or Catholic (Halim 4). This condition did not change until the end of

the nineteenth century.

Halim (2006) adds that ten years later after the liberation of the

immigrant law initiated by President Kennedy, the composition of American

society was more complex. The background of immigrants is more varied; they

represent heterogeneous ethnics, religions, and nationalities. The immigrant

policy to accept non- European immigrant also added a significant number of

Muslim immigrants from various national backgrounds to the American

population.

There are three possible assimilation processes in American society as

the developing of the immigrant history in America, from the early coming of

European domination immigration until the recent trend of immigration from

Africa and Asia including Muslim immigrants. Milton in his book Assimilation

in American Society explained three processes of assimilation, the first is

Anglo-conformity was perceived as the norm throughout the 19th century and

first half of 20th. In this paradigm, mostly European national and ethnic groups

followed the English norms in all aspect of life. In this phase, English still

dominated in maintaining the American identity. English language and English

oriented cultural patterns became the standard in American life (88). Because of

this standardization, many Muslims immigrants in the first wave of immigration

changed their Arabic names to sound more English.

Later on, there is a term Melting Pot in which identities the old world is

dissolved to create a new transnational American identity. Melting Pot is a

 Andriani 25

metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different

elements "melting together" into a harmonious whole with a common culture. In

this process, the various culture of immigrants is melted together to become one

American culture. This term was originated from the play title of Israel Zangwill’s

the Melting Pot which was dedicated to President Roosevelt (121). The play is

about the story of immigrants in America who struggle in the new homeland.

The other paradigm is pluralistic society that more celebrates diversity

rather than two former paradigms. This latest process is also known in the term

of “Salad Bowl”; the integration of many different cultures in America and

each of culture keeps its own distinct qualities (Milton 85).

The assimilation process of Muslims immigrants into American society

can be seen in many aspects such as the changing of the mosques programs in

America. As the research of Abdo Elkholy on the assimilation of Muslims

immigrants in the different areas, they are Dearbon, Michigan, Toledo, Ohio,

Cedar Rapids, and Quincy. Actually the research of Elkholy to anticipate the

assumption that “being religious is a way of becoming American” (Leonard

107). The assumption among immigrants is that becoming American means

being secular because of the American’s secular ideology. But the fact says that

many Muslim immigrants still hold on their faith while being Americans, since

America provides religious freedom for its citizen. The survey which was

conducted by the PEW research center claims that 43% Muslims in the United

States are not changing very much in terms of their religiosity (33). This
 Andriani 26

research proves the rejecting idea that Muslims in America are becoming less

religious.

The assimilation of mosques is the switching Friday activities to Sunday

activities because for most of Americans Sunday is holiday in which some

people are off from their activities. This switching makes easier to Muslims to

attend some activities in mosques. The activities include the counseling of

Imam and some sponsored Sunday events (Abusharaf’s in Leonard 2003).

The changing of the Mosque’s function is described by Evelyn Shakir

about what is more typical patterns and changes in Mosques communities

(115).

Sometimes the very impulse to build a mosque was a response to

persistent queries from American-born children who wanted to know

why they alone, among their friends, didn’t have a church to go to. In

that case the mosque was a step forward acculturation. American

mosques inevitably borrowed heavily from American churches, using

them as models; soon the mosque became the scene of weddings and

funerals, of cake sales and dinners. Sunday schools were established and

the habit of community prayer on Sunday took hold. In the last two

decades, revivalists from abroad have moved to root out those

innovations that seem to them egregiously out of keeping with their faith

and to restore the mosque as a place devoted exclusively to prayer,

preaching, and Koranic exegesis.

 Andriani 27

From the quotation above, it can be inferred that there are some changes

in the function and the pattern of mosques related to the acculturation of

Mosque to the mainstream of American society. The efforts of becoming

American among Muslims immigrants are related to suit their culture to the

American culture; it can be seen from the changing function of mosques which

has the similarities to church. Mosque is not totally used for the religious

activity only, but it also a place for Muslims to gather in some special occasions

such as wedding party, picnic, and meeting (Leonard 109).

The assimilation process on education is found in some Islamic schools

in America where most Muslims children study there. Now, there are numbers

of Islamic schools in America, from the elementary until secondary schools,

which are located near the mosque. Muslim’s parents tend to choose Islamic

school for their children in giving the basic knowledge about Islamic religion.

In the school, the students have extra time to study Islam, to recite Al-Qur’an

and to learn Arabic language. The assimilation is seen from the teaching

materials which reflect the American context; the materials are presented in

English and when it uses Arabic, it will be translated into English. This

consideration based on the language ability of most students that are more

familiar with English than Arabic, especially for the last generation of Muslims

in America.

The clash among Muslims generations usually happens regarding to the

different shaping identity among them. The first generation of Muslims

generation has strong cultural root to the ethnic, religion and nationality of their
 Andriani 28

homeland, since they were born and raised there. While the next generations are

more Americanized since they were born and raised in America. The latest

generations of Muslims immigrants, especially young Muslims, have different

views from their parents; especially on the relationship between male and

female, sense of music and food. Most of young Muslims learn about their

ethnic heritage and religion from their parents and from Islamic schools, they

also go to their parent’s homeland rarely, this causes young Muslims are more

involved to American culture.

2.3 The Shaping Perceptions of Americans toward American-Muslims

In the process of assimilation, there is a contact between the majority

culture or host culture and the minority culture. In this case, Muslim

immigrants have to overcome the challenges in assimilating the majority

culture of American society. The contact between majority culture and minority

culture in the process of assimilation usually cause the clash between those

groups of society such as the effort of Muslim immigrants to become

Americans.

There are some factors which influence the process of assimilation

between Muslim immigrants and Americans. I divide it into two categories;

they are internal factor and external factor. The internal factor deals with the

capability of Muslim immigrants in assimilating to the American cultures. The

external factor deals with the Middle Eastern conflict and American foreign

policy toward it, because it has the contribution in shaping the perspective and
 Andriani 29

respond of general Americans in seeing Muslim immigrants, especially who

come from Middle Eastern countries.

One of internal factors which influence the Americanization process of

Muslim immigrants is occupation. Many Muslim immigrants tend to choose the

residence to live which provides the suitable occupation for them, since the

significance of their immigration to America is for the sake of better life

especially in economic field and the freedom from the conflicts in their

homeland which bound them. This reason of immigration is the main purpose

of refugee from some conflict countries. The other factor which leads Muslim

immigrants in assimilating to American culture is language acquisition. This

factor influences the communication between the immigrants and Americans to

share the ethnic identity (El Kholy in Haddad, 2004).

The external factors influencing the assimilation process of Muslim

immigrants in America is their response to American’s attitudes and policies

toward them as well as their original homeland. It is related to some conflicts in

Middle Eastern countries which some of them have been intervened by

American foreign policy such as the Israeli preemptive strike on Egypt, Syria,

and Jordan in 1967, the oil boycott in 1973, the Islamic revolution in Iran in

1979, the Rushdie affair in 1988, and the gulf war in 1991 (49). Those events

also heightened the Americans’ negative perceptions of Arab, Islam and

Muslims and it rises significantly after the event of 9/11.

Each of Muslim immigrants brings and experiences the distinctive event

in their homeland and their new land based on their different generation. These
 Andriani 30

distinctive events are fashioned by the different identity of each generation in

perceiving the perception of Americans toward them. Moreover, the immigrants

also brought their perception about America from their home land such as

America is a promised land which provides economic and social enhancement,

political refuge and religious freedom (Hadad 218). But there are also some

Muslim immigrants’ perception which said that America is a threat to Islam

since America always becomes the police in Middle Eastern countries and

supports Israel’s government which tends to have clash with other Arab

countries. Those two different perceptions between Americans and Muslims

often cause prejudice and stereotype between them.

The revolution of Iran in 1979 has a great effect in influencing the

perception of most Americans toward Muslim and Islam in general, especially

to the Arab-Muslims in America. At that time, Iran which was headed by

Ayatulloh Khomeini promoted the Islamic Republic of Iran after the fall of

Shah Government. This condition was also coupled with the holding of

American hostages for 444 days by Iranian students (221). Furthermore, the

revolution of Iran was dramatized by the report of American media which tend

to blame Muslims and Islam. The condition of Iran based on the explanation of

Gerges (2002) has much influenced the perception of Americans toward

Muslims and Islam. He also shows the research on some American respondents

who were asked about their perception on Iran, some respondents said that Iran

is associated to Khomeini, Oil and Shah. Moreover, some others said that Iran
 Andriani 31

is associated to anger, dispute, and the country of trouble. The other poll also

says that Americans mention Islam is associated to Muhammad and Iran.

The relation between Iran and America until recent time has not been

yet peaceful. Both countries tend to fight each other as two nations which have

different ideology. Furthermore, the tensions are heightened today in light of

what most Americans believe to be the attempts of Iran in developing nuclear

powers. Based on the American’s assumption, this technology will destabilize

the security stability in gulf areas (153).

The other event in Iran which influenced the perception of Americans

toward Muslims and Islam is Salman Rushdie’s case in 1988. Back then

Rushdie was about to be sentenced by Khomeini in the case of his book Satanic

Verses which was said as a humiliation to Islam. Most of Westerns and

Americans see this case as the lack sympathy of Islam to the freedom of speech

(Hadad 25). Most of them believed that government should give the freedom to

the writer, and they did not agree that the book should be censored and cause

the sentence punishment of the writer.

The substantial numbers of Muslim immigrants experience the event of

Israel pre-emptive strike attack of 1967 against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan cause

strong nationality and ethnic among immigrants in America. They represent the

strong bond of ethnic toward Palestinian people, and their identity is shaped by

the ideology that is beginning to sweep across the Arab world. The support of

America to Israel also influences the position of Arab Muslims in America;

they begin to show the Islamic ideology as the opposite of secular ideology
 Andriani 32

which is hold by America. Because they think that Islam is the only way to

encourage unity and strength among Muslim immigrants in America.

The terrorism label which is associated to Islamic fundamentalism also

has a great influence in shaping the perception of Americans toward immigrant

Muslims in America. Terrorism is the current issue in the American public life

since there are many events regarded to it, such as WTC bombing in 1993, the

Oklahoma bombing in 1995 and the latest is the event of 9/11 in 2001. Those

events are associated toward Islam and Muslims especially Arab.

The bombing of World Trade Center in 1993 caused ten Muslims were

accused of committing terror to America and attempted murder to Egypt

President, Hosni Mubarrak (Newyork Times in Gerges, 2002). This event is

believed by most Americans that Islam has a terror tradition and fanatic against

America. Although there are still no evidences which show the establishment of

terrorism organization which threats America, but this event causes the negative

image of Arab Muslims in American public life. Arab-Muslims have to face the

racial discrimination and prejudice from Americans.

The following event related to terrorism is the Oklahoma bombing in

1995. The stigma about negative image of Muslim and Arab has been rooted in

almost of American’s mind. After three days of the bombing, it was reported

that there was attack to some Arab Americans (Brooke, 1995). This event

shows that the negative image of Arab-Muslims which was associated to

terrorism has been influenced the perception of Americans toward Arab-

Muslims.
 Andriani 33

The Oklahoma bombing is followed by the policy which was agreed by

senate in 1995 to counter terrorism which is known as Omnibus

Counterterrorism Act (Gerges 58). One clause in it permits the US government

to use evidence from secret sources to deport foreigner who is accused as a

terrorist. The next clause allows the government to deport foreigners who

donate for organizations that have been branded terrorists by the U.S.

government. Most experts analyze that this policy was made to counter the

Muslim terrorism attack which is assumed from Middle Eastern.

The same policy is also applied in responding the event of 9/11 which

commonly known as USA PATRIOT ACT (Providing Appropriate Tools

Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism). This act was established in

October, 24 2001, which has in essence lifted all legal protection of liberty for

Muslims and Arabs in United States. It sanctions the monitoring of individuals,

organization, and institutions without notification (Hadad 42-43).

Meanwhile, the identification of a terrorist in the United States had

slowly changed from “Arab” to “Muslims”. Arab and Muslims are concerned

that, while the Anti-Terrorism had sanctioned the captivity of Arabs and

Muslims with secret evidence, the Patriot Act has sanctioned their captivity

with no evidence.

The Act to counter terrorism of American government tends to malign

Muslims in America, since they are the suspicious ethnic who have to be

responsible for terrorism. Department of Justice begins to process some of male

foreigners especially Muslims who have been suspected to have access into
 Andriani 34

terrorist organization. At least there are 1.200 non American citizens who

imprisoned on charges related to terrorism (Parker and Fellner 156-157).

From the explanation above, it can be assumed that there are some

factors which influence the shaping of perception toward Arab-Muslims

immigrants. There has been rooted idea among Americans about Islam and

Muslims, some of them are influenced by some events in Middle Eastern

countries. This idea leads on the excessive prejudice and stereotyping against

Arab-Muslim following the event of 9/11.

2. 4 Islamophobia

After discussing some aspects which influence the shaping perception of

Americans toward Muslims, it is important to talk about Islamophobia. The

condition and the relation between Americans and Muslims emerges the new label

of Islamophobia, which Smith defines as a fear of everything about Islam (174).

The term Islamophobia was well known on 1980s which refers to the irrational

fear that connotes a social anxiety, discrimination, and prejudice against Muslims

and Islam. This anti-Muslim racism leads to the exclusion of Muslim citizens

from mainstream social and political America, the marginalization of their

communities and institutions, and the presumption of their guilt by association

which fuels hate crimes (http://www.lifeintheusa.com/religion/islamophobia.htm).

The research on the Western Perception of Islam and Muslims which is

conducted by Communiqué Partner a leading San-Francisco-based Market

 Andriani 35

intelligence consultancy mentions some examples of Islamophobia in the West

and America such as

- Verbal and physical attacks on Muslims in public places

- Widespread and routine negative stereotypes in the media

- negative stereotypes and remarks in speeches by political leaders,

implying that Muslims in the US are less committed than others to

democracy and the rule of law

- discrimination in recruitment and employment practices, and in

workplace cultures and customs

- bureaucratic delay and inertia in responding to Muslim requests for

cultural sensitivity in education and healthcare and in planning

applications for mosques (26)

The Islamophobia term is rooted from the misunderstanding of Islam

among Western people; this term was gained the phenomenon from the popular

thesis developed by Samuel Huntington in his phenomenal book The Clash of

Civilization that argues about impending clash between Islam and West.

Huntington divides the world's cultures into seven current civilizations, Western,

Latin American, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu and Slavic-Orthodox

(Huntington 26). He also explains how the West presents pro-Western policies as

positive for the entire world and that the very idea of a universal culture is a

Western idea. It also predicts future conflicts will be started by non-Western

civilizations reacting to Western power and values ignoring the equally plausible
 Andriani 36

situation where Western states use their military superiority to maintain their

superior positions.

Huntington’s thesis gives an idea about the separation of world into two

parts, Islam and West. Since the event of 9/11, the image of Islam is identified as

terrorist that have to be combated by Western. It can be looked from the invasion

of America toward Iraq and Afghanistan, two countries which are assumed as

fundamentalist Islamic countries.

The term of West according to Nyang (92) is used to denote a community

and the diverse belief lumped together in its name; the term of West is usually

associated to secular, it embraces a peculiar set of historical perspectives which

have created secular forces against religion or have secular ideology. Nyang also

adds that Western civilization consists of the catholic and protestant countries, it

also related to the white skin people.

On the other hand, the conflict between Islam and the West is a product of

differences, especially the concept of Muslims who see Islam as a way of life,

which unites religion and politics. This is contrary to the Christian concept of

God's separation of powers and the rule of King (secularism). On the other hand,

the conflict is also a product of the equation. Both felt as the true religion. Both

religious missionaries require his followers to follow the teachings of their

religion. Islam spreads with the conquests of Christian areas and was also so; they

also have the concept of "jihad" and "crusade" as a holy war. (210-211). From this

view it can be understood the reason of high sensitivity and the cause of

Islamophobia of the West toward Islam.

 Andriani 37

2.5 Islam in American Pluralistic Context

Islam is the fastest growing religion in America, having more than four

million believers and an estimated 650 mosques. The Islamic faith is however, the

least known and understood among Americans in general. As stated above, most

Americans tend to perceive Islam as a religion which is associated to violence.

Islam is also one of religion that often maligned by the negative perception among

American media.

The raising amount of Muslims in America is extremely dramatic; it has

more members than the Episcopal Church, one of the most mainstream of

Protestant churches in the United States. Based on Webb’s opinion (1994) in her

article Islam and Muslims in America, the recent situation of Islam in America

adjusts the basic assumption which says that America is Christian nation because

Americans tend to think that America in terms of its “Judeo-Christian heritage”.

The presence of Muslims in America has changed the social composition

of American society. The description of Americans as Protestant, Catholic,

and Jew (PCJ) is no longer suitable due to the growing diversity of American

society. The coming of Muslims, particularly during the post-liberalization of

the immigration act of 1965, has significantly added the social composition of

the society as consisting not only of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews, but also of

Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and other religious groups. This situation has been

drawn out by Eck that America which is well known as Christian country

became the world’s most religiously diverse nation. There are many religions

from around the world which enrich the American culture and create a
 Andriani 38

pluralism country. This situation is dedicated to a simple concept, E pluribus

unum which means out of many and become one (29).

The pluralistic condition of America has a special challenge to Islam

and Muslim. It relates to the relation of Muslims to the other faith, once the

pioneer Muslim immigrants from the Arab countries decided to immigrate and

settle in the America, they were eager to belong, and in the process of adaptation

they tried to interpret American culture as compatible with their country concepts

of virtue and honor. Early records show that they were dispersed throughout the

United States, and initially tended to socialize with Christian and Jewish

immigrants from the Arab world. They sent their children to Christian school in

order to imbue their education with ethical values. In communicating with the

American public, they tended to talk about the Qur’an as our bible, the mosque as

our church, and the imam as our minister (Hadad 23-24).

The relation of Muslims with other faiths, especially Christian and Jewish

is related to the standing position of those three religion as Abrahamic Religions.

This root conceives Islam theologically and historically closer to Christian and

Jewish than other tradition of East such as Hindus, Buddhist etc. After all, the

world and narrative of Qur’an includes the figures of Abraham and Moses, Jesus

and Mary and the prophetic vision of justice that is told in Bible also resound in

the Qur’an. Related to the presence and the position of Islam in America as the

minority religion and as the religion which sometimes being misunderstood by

American media, it is important to take a look again the root of history on

 Andriani 39

relationship among Muslim, Jewish and Christian. Those three religions have the

same root as Abrahamic religion.

Rauf denotes that the pluralist society requires a kind of self awareness to

the one self and to the others (41). No Christian can claim to be followers of

Christ unless he or she accepts the presence of other people and other believers of

faith. It also goes for those who embrace other religions, like Muslims, Jews,

Buddhist and Hindus etc; they have to respect each other. If a Muslim cannot live

in harmony with other religions, she or he will not be called as a follower of the

teachings of holy Qur’an and the prophet Muhammad because Islam teaches its

followers to respect Islam and non Islam believers especially to the Christian and

Jewish as the same root monotheistic religion.

The call for tolerance is stated in some verses of Al- Qur’an, Muslims are

reminded to respect other faith which does not attack Islamic faith. The verses are

including “God only forbids you the ones who have not fought you on account of

the religion and have not driven you out of your residence that you should benign

to them and be equitable towards them; surely God loves the equitable (60: 8)”,

and “and dispute ye not with the People of Book (Christian and Jews) except with

means better (than mere disputation) unless it be with those of them who inflict

wrong (and injury) but say, we believe in the revelation which has come down to

us and in that which come to you (29:46)”. From those two verses, it can be the

explanation about the position of Islam with other faith especially Jews and

Christian. Islam calls for the tolerance to the other faith as long as they do not
 Andriani 40

fight in the name of religion. These two verses can be leading to the basic

understanding of interfaith dialogue among Islam and other religious group.

The interfaith dialogues between Islam and other faiths in America are

established due to the complexity of pluralistic society in America. As the

pluralistic country, it is important to establish the interfaith dialogue to gain the

harmony life among religious group in America. Smith in his book, Muslims and

Christian and the Challenge of interfaith Dialogue maintains some examples and

efforts of interfaith dialogue between Islam and other faith, one of them can be

seen from the effort of Talal Eid, the imam and director of religious affairs in

Quincy and Sharon who has worked extensively with Christian, Jews, and

Muslims in developing dialogues in the greater Boston area. In many other cities

such as Atlanta, Houston, Dallas and San Francisco, Denver and Washington D.C

are home to significant efforts on the part of interfaith dialogue. In Denver, the

dialogue between the different religious groups is sometimes broadcasted live on

local television stations, which Muslims find it to be an effective and important

way to explain the beliefs and practice of their faith to the city (51-52).

The event of 9/11 has followed the new model of interfaith dialogue in

American society, since many followers of other religious group are eager to

know more about Islam. Many people want to know what Muslims thought about

the attack. Book publisher and distributors of Islamic books noted a surge in

public interest in Islam and Muslims. As noted by Nimer in his article, Muslim US

post 9/11; some Muslims were open to give more understanding about Islam.

They established some programs to reclaim and to clarify the position of Islam
 Andriani 41

related to the event of 9/11 such as the opening of some Mosques, educational

program and teaching about Islam, and launching the media and advertisement

campaign to communicate with their fellow Americans (10).

Nimer also exposes the quotation from the NCC board (National Council

of Churches) on May, 14 2002

“After 9/11 hundreds of Islamic centers and mosques across the United

States held open houses, inviting their neighbors of other faiths in to

grieve together and builds the bridges of understanding. For many

Christian, it was their first occasion to enter mosque and talk with a

Muslim.. Muslim for their part wanted their neighbor of other faith to

understand who they really were- not terrorist, but peace loving and

Americans who came here from all parts of the world”

The event of 9/11 is followed by the positive effect on the relation among

Islam with other religious group in American society, since it can give

clarification about the truth of Islam and Muslims, that Islam is not associated to

the violence and terrorism. The event of 9/11 can be hoped as the new bridge and

new vision among religious groups in American society to understand and to

know each other, especially for those who do not know about Islam before.

President of the United States, Barack Obama in his speech at Al Azhar

University of Cairo points out to the relationship of America and Islam that has

ever strained due to the event of 9/11. He addresses that Islam is a part of

American’s story and have a contribution in the building of American nation.

 Andriani 42

I know, too, that Islam has always been a part of America's story. The first

nation to recognize my country was Morocco. In signing the Treaty of

Tripoli in 1796, our second President John Adams wrote, "The United

States has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion or

tranquility of Muslims." And since our founding, American Muslims have

enriched the United States. They have fought in our wars, served in

government, stood for civil rights, started businesses, taught at our

Universities, excelled in our sports arenas, won Nobel Prizes, built our

tallest building, and lit the Olympic Torch. And when the first Muslim-

American was recently elected to Congress, he took the oath to defend our

Constitution using the same Holy Koran that one of our Founding Fathers

– Thomas Jefferson – kept in his personal library. (President Obama’s

speech on Cairo, June 4 2009)

From this speech it can be perceived that Muslims in America in the

relation of Christian and Jewish should live in harmony. Islam should not be

understood from one view which is always presented in some American media. It

is important to denounce that Islam is religion of peace, Islam never teaches about

violence and Islam condemns the terrorist attack.

 Andriani 43

2.6 Media Coverage on American Muslims

It cannot be denied that media has a contribution in shaping the perception

of Americans toward Muslims related to the event of 9/11. Most of Americans

have some understanding about Islam through media.

In their book, Nacos and Reyna mention that the American media

coverage on American Muslims is colored by negative biases that can be seen

from the expression of stereotype and prejudice against American Muslims (2).

There are many complains about the negative biases and stereotype in mass media

regarding to the position of American Muslims before and after 9/11. According

to the American Muslim poll that questioned Muslims in the United States in

October and November 2001, more than two of three (68 percent) respondents

said that the news media were not fair in portraying Islam and Muslim. This

condition cannot be separated from the position of Islam as minority religion in

America, it is said that media has a strong tendency to prejudice the minority

group (4).

American media coverage on American Muslims from the early coming of

Islam in that country was full nuanced by negative biases. Edward Said reveals in

his book covering Islam that Islam does not often appear in American mass media

except to some events that associated to violence such as Middle Eastern crisis.

Said states that American media coverage on Islam focuses on one perspective

based on the historical interpretation and misunderstanding about Islam. Nyang

also said that mass media themes on Muslims deals with Arab- Israel conflict,
 Andriani 44

Islamic fundamentalism, the question of terrorism in the Muslim world and the

lack development in the Muslim world (128).

From the perspective of Said and Nyang, it can be infered that the

portrayal of Islam and Muslims in the American mass media is often being

reduced and stereotyped based on the influence of dominant perception and

cultural meaning attached to both Islam and violence (Karim 102). The depiction

of Islam in America has to force Americans to see Islam and Muslim from one

side perspective, which tends to be reductive and misinformation.

Besides the influence of the mainstream perspective and cultural meaning,

there is also the other cause which influences the journalists in presenting the

news regarding to Islam and the event of 9/11. Zelizer and Allan (2002) in their

book, Journalism after September 9/11 argue that some journalists after 9/11 have

to work and present the news through the trauma psychology which is influenced

by the event of 9/11. The feeling of trauma in most journalists is understandable

since the event has great effect to many people especially to Americans. Zelizer

and Allan continue that for journalists the need to work through trauma has not

only individual but also collective repercussions, most of which are connected

with the maintenance and consolidation of identity. On the other hand, the

journalists have the immense duty to present the accurate news regarding to that

event, whereas they have to cope with their trauma.

Regarding to the event of 9/11, Nacos and Reyna (2007) mention that in

some mass media such as New York Times, Daily News and New York Post there

is significantly more news which reported about or mentioned Muslims American

 Andriani 45

and Arab Americans in the post 9/11 period than in the months preceding the

attack.

Table1.1 Muslims and Arab American in the news before and after 9/11.

(source was taken from Muslims in New York City Project in Nacos and Reyna,

2007; 7)

Sept.11, 2000, to March 12, 2001, Sept. 12, 2001 to

March 11, 2001 to Sept. 11 2001 March 11, 2002
(6 months) (6 months) (6 months)
New York Times 37 N 17 N 376 N

New York Post 58 N 15 N 50 N

Daily News 52 N 21 N 99 N

USA Today 8N 6N 128 N

Total 155 N 59 N 653 N

N = Number of stories

The analysis was from three largest daily newspapers that are published in

New York City; the New York Times, New York Post, and Daily News. While

Times has a sizeable national circulation beside its regional readership and

reputation as an influential local and a leading international new source, New York

post and Daily News are mostly read in New York, additionally the choosing of

USA Today is because of its national focus and readership (8-9).

From the table above, it can be seen that each of four publications reported

far more frequently on Muslim in the six months before the event of 9/11. Islam

and Americans Muslims rarely made headline news before 9/11. Indeed, in the six

months before 9/11, none of newspaper carried out a story or news about Muslims
 Andriani 46

on its front page. In the six months following 9/11, the New York Times placed

one of ten news stories that mentioned Muslim in the front page.

The pictures of Islam and American Muslims are often showed in some

news papers to give more real depiction about this minority group. in some years

before 9/11, the pictures to depict Islam usually in the form of cartoon, Arab

Muslim is portrayed with squinty eyes, huge nose, and kafiyya (Arab headdress)

rubbing the hand and asking where to get a pickup truck and some TNT or

standing with a sign saying “death to all infidels” next to a pastor whose sign says

“pray for peace” (Smith 173). This kind of picture gives misinformation and

misunderstanding about Islam to Americans, and causes them associates Islam

with the violence.

In the six months following the event of 9/11 News Week and Time

published 76 pictures of Arabs and Muslims in the United States. Some of their

pictures, 40 percent conveyed negative message while 60 percent as neutral or

ambiguous. The most importantly, in the six months after the event of 9/11, News

Week visual depiction of Muslims and Arabs in the United States were deemed to

be more positive than negative whereas in Time magazine were more negative

than positive(Nacos and Reyna 41).

The media used in depicting the great impact of 9/11 is not only shown in

some news paper, but also shown in some television and radio. Television shows

more real visual image about Islam and American Muslims regarding to the effect

of 9/11. As same as the news publication, television also shows more news and

information about Islam and Muslims following the event of 9/11. The table
 Andriani 47

below shows the changes rate of television show on Islam and Muslim six months

before and after the event of 9/11.

Table 1.2 Muslims, Arabs, and Islam in the News before and after 9/11

(The source was taken from Muslims in New York City Project in Nacos and

Reyna 8)

MUSLIM MUSLIM ARAB ARAB ISLAM ISLAM

PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD PERIOD
I II 1 II I II
ABC 31 N 163 N 11 N 99 N 1N 31 N
NEWS
CBS 32 N 144 N 27 N 117 N 1N 27 N
NEWS
NBC 9N 98 N 5N 90 N - 18 N
NEWS
CNN 23 N 203 N 43 N 200 N 1N 31 N

FOX 1N 100 N 2N 64 N 1N 46 N
NEWS
NY 345 N 468 N 345 N 272 N 216 N 1,190 N
TIMES
NPR 54 N 217 N 53 N 182 N 10 N 84 N

N= Number of news segments or articles mentioning the search word Muslims,

Arab, and or Islam.
Period 1: 6 months before 9/11. Period II: 6 months after 9/11.

The table above illustrates that there is a significant rise in presenting news

about Muslim and Islam. In the aftermath of 9/11 there is far more attention to

American Muslims and Arab in most media, they covered Muslims, Arab and

Islam in general more frequently as well. One comprehensive content analysis of

religious news in ten America daily newspapers, and nine magazines found that

stories on Islam and Muslims dominated this coverage in the weeks following the

event of 9/11.
 Andriani 48

This rise is natural and neutral reaction to the attack that killed more than

three thousand Americans and are perpetrated by Muslim and Arab followers of

America’s most wanted terrorist leader, Osama bin Laden. In the process,

American learned a great deal about Muslims and their religion. On the other

hand, the sudden media attention toward Muslims and Arab also happened to

satisfy terrorist’s continuing need for publication (Nacos, 2002)

From the explanation above, it can be summed up that media has the

significance in shaping the perception of Americans toward Islam and Muslims.

Many Americans have some information about Islam and some terms associated

with it such as terrorist, extremist, Jihad, fundamentalist etc from the media, they

read printed media and they watch television every day. It is important to present

accurate information and comprehensive knowledge about Islam in order to give

best understanding about Islam to Americans.

 Andriani 49

CHAPTER III

THE POTRAIT OF AMERICAN MUSLIMS LIFE AFTER 9/11

The word of 9/11 is associated with the event which happened in Tuesday,

11 September 2001. The September 11 attacks were assumed as a series of

coordinated suicide attacks by al-Qaeda upon the United States on September 11th,

2001. On that morning, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger

jet airliners. The hijackers intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin

Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board

and many others working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two

hours, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed

the third airline into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington,

D.C. The fourth airline crashed into a field near Shanksville in rural Pennsylvania

after some of its passengers and flight crews attempted to retake control of the

airline, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C. There were

no survivors from any of the flights.

The event of 9/11 has a great impact to the life of American Muslims,

since most Americans see that Muslims have the responsibility for that incident.

On September 27th, 2001, the FBI released photos of the 19 hijackers, along with

information about their possible nationalities. Fifteen of the hijackers are from

Saudi Arabia, two hijackers are from the United Arab Emirates, one hijacker is

from Egypt, and the other hijacker is from Lebanon. According to the names and
 Andriani 50

the nationalities of the hijackers, most Americans assume that Arab, Islam, and

terrorism cannot be separated from 9/11 incident.

The action of the hijackers in the events of 9 / 11 is often associated with

the term terrorist. This terror is believed as an act of Islamic terrorists led by

Osama bin Laden. Public world, especially United States of America and its allies

believe that Al Qaeda terrorists are the group that has to be responsible in the

event of 9 / 11. The tendency of terrorism such as Osama bin Laden as the leader

of Al Qaeda is excessive feeling of anti western and anti America. Osama bin

Laden was born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in 1957. He is the seventeenth of fifty-

two children from the rich family of Muhammad bin Laden. The idea of Osama is

much influenced by the environment of Saudi Arabia such as a style of Islamic

state, Wahhaby and the militant Jihad ideology. Wahhaby popularly refers to term

of Islamic fundamentalism, religious extremism and radicalism. In recent years

Wahhaby is identified with the Taliban and Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda.

The term terrorism is so well known and popular after the events 9 / 11. As

the terror network accused to be responsible, Al Qaeda, headed by Osama bin

Laden is so well known among people around the world. As in the dissertation

written by Hendropriyono about terrorism from the viewpoint of philosophical

study, entitled Terrorism, Fundamentalist Christianity, Islam Jewish Ideological,

explicitly says that terrorists who attacked the twin towers and the Pentagon is a

kind of action for the rejection of modernity, secularization, and democracy

which are mostly adopted by West countries (7).

 Andriani 51

Al Qaeda is a forum of Islamic fundamentalists, ie, a group that has

ideology of puritan Islam. This group tends to hate the West and its ideology;

moreover there is a presumption that the incidence of 9 / 11 is the ideological war

between the West and Islam, and also clash of civilizations. Terrorists have

hijacked Islam to justify their actions as stated by Esposito that some terrorists

used religious text and doctrines to justify “Jihad” of violence and terrorism (153).

Some attacks conducted by terrorists are closely related to Westernphobia

terms, ie, excessive feeling of hatred and prejudice against West by the

Muslims. This term is the opposite of Islamophobia among Westerners towards

Muslims, particularly after the events 9 / 11. The growing feeling of anti-western

and anti-American is followed by the movement of terrorist groups that pose a

threat to Western life. Huntington exposes the data from the survey which was

conducted in America, some respondents were asked which countries are the

biggest threat to United States, from the random sample it said that Iran, China,

and Iraq (389). This shows that most Americans assume that Islam is a deadly

threat to them.

The conflict between West and Islam has been predicted and explained

excellently by Samuel Huntington’s thesis, the Clash of Civilization. Huntington

predicts that the clash of civilization will dominate the global politics. Many

people argue that the event of 9/11 and the global threat of terrorism and al Qaeda

as the response of Clash of civilization. In his book, Huntington mentions some

stereotypes that Western civilization as the best civilization compare to others.

Otherwise, Huntington characterizes Islam as the civilization that will threat the
 Andriani 52

West because of the different ideology between them, especially regarding to the

way of life, and the concept of unification between the religious and political

versus the Christian concept of separating between Church and state. Another

more reasons underlying the conflict between the West and Islam is a

monotheistic religion similar concept as a missionary and as a religion that

requires its followers to invite people embrace their religion (Huntington 380).

The event of 9 / 11 if ordered from the back has a close connection with

the conflict between the West and Islam since the middle Ages, when the Pope

Urban II called for holy war and liberated Jerusalem for Christian. Muslims and

Christians never forget the moment of Crusade. For many people in the West, the

Crusade for the liberation of Jerusalem was a shining moment of religious defense

of Christianity. As Esposito says in his book, Unholy War: Terror in the Name of

Islam that Crusade is kind of the battle between Muslim and Christians, both

Muslims and Christian saw the other as conquer, convert, or eradicate the other

and as enemy as God (75).

Crusades have left a deep impression for the people of Islam and

Christianity. This event provides a great effect on some conflicts in recent

time. Both Christians and Muslims use the term 'crusade as a motive for their

struggle against each other. As expressed in her book, Holy War: The Crusades

and Their Impact on Today’s World, Armstrong said that the suicide bombers

from Hamas believe that they fought in a martial spirit of Saladin’s Jihad. While

from the Israeli side, Jewish settlers in the West bank and Gaza Strip, most of
 Andriani 53

whom come from American. They feel an inspiration from religious Zionist which

has the loyalty similar to the spirit and ethos of the Crusaders (11).

The next few events and conflicts also affect the perception of Muslims in

the West especially in America, and also on the Western perception to Muslims.

Anti- Americanism is driven not only by the blind hatred of the terrorist but also

by a broader based on anger and frustration with American foreign policy among

many Arab and Muslim societies. America's foreign policy of intervention in

internal conflicts in several cities in several Middle Eastern countries also triggers

the formation of a false perception in the West especially the U.S., such as the

Gulf war crisis, the Iranian Revolution in 1979 and the ongoing conflict between

Israel and Palestine. Some events have been already described in the previous

chapters, so there is no need to explain them in detail in this chapter.

Two wars that affect the growth of Westernphobia are the gulf war and

Afghanistan war. These two wars also interfered by many foreigners, especially

Americans, while also cause the generalization of anti-Western perceptions

toward Arab society and Islam. Many people also consider that those two wars

became a war of civilizations that is the war between the West and Islam as a

whole, not wars against Iraq and Afghanistan. Many Islamic countries support

Saddam Hussein and assume that he is their hero and not a foreign party should

intervene in Iraq's domestic policy.

This argument is opposite to the assumption of American political policy

which formulates War on Terrorism. They assume that the invasion of Iraq and

Afghanistan as an effort to eradicate terrorist groups, primarily the leader of Al

 Andriani 54

Qaeda, Osama bin Laden based in Afghanistan. As president, Bush said in his

speech associated with the occurrence of 9 / 11.

The terrorists' directive commands them to kill Christians and Jews, to kill

all Americans and make no distinctions among military and civilians,

including women and children. This group and its leader, a person named

Osama bin Laden, are linked to many other organizations in different

countries, including the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, the Islamic Movement of

Uzbekistan.

There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries.

They are recruited from their own nations and neighborhoods and brought

to camps in places like Afghanistan where they are trained in the tactics of

terror. They are sent back to their homes or sent to hide in countries

around the world to plot evil and destruction. The leadership of al Qaeda

has great influence in Afghanistan and supports the Taliban regime in

controlling most of that country. In Afghanistan we see al Qaeda's vision

for the world. Afghanistan's people have been brutalized, many are

starving and many have fled. (transcript was taken from

http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/)

From Bush's point of view, it can be inferred that America already has the

evidence related to the attacks 9 / 11 which states that the perpetrator was Al

Qaeda, from this assumption come up War on Terrorism policy and the global war

on terrorism, particularly in the Afghanistan and Iraq which is believed to be

terrorist headquarters. The defense of American on this policy is related to

 Andriani 55

Humanism aspect, which is to liberate the people there from the threat of a tyrant

regime.

Related to American foreign policy and the roots of conflict between the

West and Islam, American Muslims are the certain group who feel the impact of

the events 9 / 11 because they interact directly with the western community whom

are very deeply traumatized over the incident. Beside that, Muslims in America

also have problems related to personal identity as an American and as immigrants

from countries that are in conflict with America

The impact of 9/11 toward the life of American Muslims is revealed in this

chapter through comprehensive analysis on the Laila Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land. It illustrates a real portrait of American Muslims’ life after 9/11,

their struggle, their survival and their hope regarding to that event. The event of

9/11 is the starting point for Muslims both in America and abroad to be more

noticeable. As Salaita (2005) said in his article Ethnic Identity and Imperative

Patriotism: Arab Americans before and after 9/11, there is a drastic change about

in mentioning Islam, Muslims and Arab preceding aftermath of 9/11.

In the early coming of Islam in the United States, Islam has not been

involved in particular public activities such as social and politics since many of

Muslim immigrants tend to isolate themselves from the rest of American society.

It was still difficult for them to adapt themselves in the majority of American

society. The limit participation of Muslim immigrants in the American public

sector still continued, until the event of 9/11 in 2001 which brought great impact

for American Muslims. Before 9/11, American Muslims were examined as

 Andriani 56

invisible or marginal, but after 9/11 they faced a demand to transmit or translate

their culture to mainstream Americans. They are suddenly becoming “visible”,

and because of the intentions of intelligence agencies that visibility is often feared

and deplored (149)

The portrait of 9/11 toward American Muslims is revealed through the

writing of Arab-Americans that is believed to have the sensibility and accuracy in

giving the information related to community issues, especially regarding to the

event of 9/11. There are kinds of writings which are produced by American

Muslims, but this research only discusses the portrait of American Muslims which

is depicted in Laila Halaby’s Once in Promised Land.

3.1 Discrimination and Prejudice based on the Race and Religion

Discrimination is defined by Allport (50) as any behavior that denies

individuals or groups equality of treatment which they may wish. Specifically, it

refers to behavior toward people that prevents them from obtaining rights and

reward that enforces duties or punishment on them solely because of their

membership in certain group. Racial discrimination is treating people differently

through a process of social division into categories which is related to races.

Traditionally, discrimination is the result of negative prejudice and associated

with negative stereotype.

In this research, discrimination against American Muslims is viewed from

the religion and race issues. It means that following the incident of 9/11, most of
 Andriani 57

American Muslims have to face some discrimination based on their religion

(Islam) and their race, mostly is Arab.

Racial discrimination is found in the beginning of Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land as the representation for the whole story of the novel. It tells the

condition in American airport after 9/11, how Muslims are being interviewed

regarding to their identities. They have to face some investigations as if they were

terrorists who would destroy the nation. In the airport, all of international

passengers have to be interviewed by immigrant officers related to the purpose of

their coming to the United States, but the interview usually takes longer if the

passengers are having physical appearance of Arabian people, having name which

sounds like Arabic or Islamic name and wearing clothes which identify them as

Muslims.

I’m sorry, sir/ma’am; you have set off the alarm. Please step over to the

side.

I need a check over here.

Go ahead. I am patient. I can wait while you unpeel them all. While you

scrape those tiny adjectives from the surface of your skin, pick them out

from between your teeth, underneath your fingernails, and between your

toes.

Is this your luggage?

There’s one poking out like a splinter.

Place your feet in the square and hold your arms out to the side.

No Turbans, burqas, or violent culture.

 Andriani 58

Who will you be visiting

And for good measure, why don’t you throw in those hateful names as

well, ones you might never ever utter: Sand Nigger, Rag Head, and camel

Jockey. You don’t need them for this story, and you might find they get in

the way, like a small child who’s just had a candy bar and a can of soda

and has to attend funeral.

(Halaby VIII-IX)

The high sensitivity of Americans toward American Muslims is clearly

seen in the depiction of investigation in the entry Airport. Preceding the 9/11

incident, there are some prejudices toward American Muslims especially who are

Arabs in America. The airport investigation in introduction page of Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land shows us the prejudice and discrimination based on race

related to the 9/11 incident. Halaby illustrates it as portrayal of obstacles that have

to be faced by American Muslims after 9/11.

Racial discrimination and prejudice toward Muslims in American after

9/11 cannot be separated also from the events long before 9/11 event. There are

some events which shape the perception of American toward Muslims such as

some conflicts in Middle Eastern countries i.e. Israel and Palestine conflict and

Gulf war. Some Americans say that Islam and Muslims associated to the violence

since there are many conflicts and wars which bound some Arab countries.

Furthermore, the event of 9/11 is also heightened Americans prejudice

toward American Muslims since all the hijackers are from Arab countries. This

condition is also compounded by the mentioning of relationship between terrorist

 Andriani 59

and Islamic fundamentalist such as Al-Qaeda, a militant Islamic group which is

leaded by Osama bin Laden. This perception causes the excessive prejudice

among American toward American Muslims. Because of this misperception,

American Muslims have to face some obstacles regarding to their identity

especially after 9/11 such as what has been described by Halaby in her work about

the interrogation toward Muslims in Airport entry.

The racial discrimination reports in airport are also released from the

CNN.com (http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/06/04/airlines.discrimination)

which said that there were five passengers who were removed from or prevented

from boarding flights last year after the September 11 terror attacks filed suit

Tuesday against four major U.S. airlines, accusing them of racial profiling and

discrimination. The Arab-American Anti-Discrimination group has recorded

double that amount of complaints. Two of the five plaintiffs are of Arab descents.

The discrimination toward American Muslims doesn’t happen in the

public service only but also in the workplace. First report of discrimination in the

workplace is released by the American-Arab Anti-discrimination Committee, a

watchdog group in Washington D.C. They reported that discrimination against

Arabs and Muslims in America had resulted in more than 400 reports of

employment discrimination (Elaasar 76).

Reports of discrimination against Arab and Muslims in the workplace are

more than tripled after 9/11. Between September 11th, 2001 and May 7th, 2002 the

Equal Employment Opportunities Commission reported that their field offices

 Andriani 60

received 497 charges of religious bias against Muslims in the workplace and 488

charges of ethnic discrimination against Arab and Muslims in the workplace.

The investigation in the airport with the excessive prejudice against

Muslims related to the American Policy which is well known as USA PATRIOT

ACT. It has the official title as "Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing

Appropriate Tools Required to intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001. It

sanctions the monitoring individuals, organizations, and institutions without

notification (http://www.fincen.gov/statutes_regs/patriot/index.html). This act was

proposed by government as the response to the terrorism act in 2001. One of the

sanctions in USA PATRIOT ACT includes monitoring phone and computer

terminals, Bank account to prevent money transfer to help terrorist financing, and

security measures which causes airport profiling of potential terrorist.

This act is controversial, many people argue that this act violates human

right as Mary Rose Oakar said that it was completely incompatible with basic

liberties, most notably freedom from unreasonable search and seizure by the

government guaranteed by the fourth Amendment to the Constitution, the

amendment specifically requires search

and arrest warrants be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. This

act gives more disadvantages to American Muslims, they have to face excessive

suspicious such as the profiling event in airport.

Besides the discrimination in the airport, there is also discrimination in

the workplace which is also depicted in the Halaby’s Once in Promised Land.

Jassim Haddad is a hydrologist; he has studied on hydrology and decided to apply

 Andriani 61

it in the Arizona, the area which is well known as the dessert spot. Jassim choose

to settle on America after graduating from his doctoral degree because he thinks

that America offers opportunities based on the science he learned in the college.

Jassim’s job is especially related to Rainwater Harvesting. He finds ways to

collect rainwater when it falls. Jassim works to make water be accessible by the

entire people of the city.

After 9/11 event, Jassim’s clients make a report to Marcus, the owner of

the company, that they have anxiety to Jassim because he is an Arab and a

muslim. They force Marcus to fire Jassim as soon as possible because they are

afraid that Jassim will do something dangerous. This fear arouses for Jassim has

an access to the water resources of the city. The customers are worried that

Jassim’s right in having the accessibility to city’s water resources will be used to

destroy the city up may be by pouring poison into the water.

Marcus felt himself losing ground. No, do not get sidetracked. Look at the

bottom line. “Jassim, it is not because of the accident I firing you.” Why is

it then? ”bottom line, we’re going to lose the business if I don’t make an

act of good faith to the people we do business with”

“and firing me is your act of good faith.”

“yes.” Though he didn’t like the way that sounded

(Halaby 297)

The firing of Jassim begins from the racial prejudice of some staffs in the

office; they are Corey and Bella. They make report to the FBI after a couple days

of 9/11 attack saying that in their office there is a rich man from Middle Eastern
 Andriani 62

with the access to city’s water supply and he didn’t seem upset very much by what

happened related to the event of 9/11. Besides making the report, Bella also starts

to check Jassim’s computer and writes down what Jassim said, what Jassim looks

like, what he wears every day. Two months later, Bella thinks that Jassim

behavior has changed, and she makes a call again to FBI so that FBI can start to

investigate Jassim.

The investigation of FBI begins by interviewing some clients of Marcus’s

company. FBI also investigates Jassim and provides some questions related to his

private life and based on the report of Bella. FBI also asks about Jassim and his

wife reaction to the event of 9/11, whether they have met one of hijackers on that

event.

The investigation of FBI is also related to the frequent phone call from

Jordan to Salwa. Actually the call is from Salwa’s ex-boy friend who still hopes to

be able to come back to Salwa. His name is Hassan, he lives in Jordan and he calls

Salwa frequently to ask about her condition. This frequent call leads the FBI

suspicious to Salwa and Jassim, FBI assumes that they have relationship to the

terrorists in Jordan. The other suspicious object of FBI toward Jassim is the large

amount of remittance from Salwa to her family in Jordan in the following days

after 9/11. This remittance causes the strong assumption that Jassim has the

relationship to the network of terrorist in Middle East.

“How often do you pray in a mosque?”

I have not prayed in a mosque since I was a young man.”

 Andriani 63

“Mr. Haddad, why don’t you give us a sense of what a typical day for you

is like?”

“I swim, I work, I go home. Not unlike the rest of America, I suspect.”

“that may be, but the rest of America doesn’t have access to the entire

city’s water supply with the means to tamper with it,” said agent Fletcher.

Jassim couldn’t help himself. “I am scientist; I work to make water safe

and available. I am normal citizen who happens to be an Arab. Yes I have

access to the city’s water supply, but I have no desire to abuse it. The mere

fact that I am an Arab should not add suspicion to the matter.”

“I have spent my entire life trying to find ways to make water safe and

accessible for everyone. Just because I am an Arab, because I was raised a

Muslim, you want to believe that I am capable of doing evil”

(Halaby 232)

The event of 9/11 causes some American Muslims have been investigated

related to that event. There is a big misunderstanding and misperception between

Americans and Muslims and this condition rises after the event of 9/11. Many

Americans associate Islam as religion which teaches violence. This assumption is

based on the research of CAIR (Council on American-Islamic relations). The

research was held in 2005 and focuses on the perception of Americans toward

Muslims in America. Respondents were asked to state their agreement and

disagreement with twenty statements reflecting favorable and unfavorable

perception of Islam and Muslims. The survey finding affirms that one-fourth of
 Andriani 64

Americans with one or more of the following extremely negative statements

(CAIR Survey 4):

1. “Muslims teach their children to hate unbelievers”

2. “Muslims values life less than other people”

3. “The Muslims’ religion teaches violence and hatred”

The prejudice toward Arab-Muslims also happens in public places such as

shopping centre. It is told that Jassim Haddad and Salwa Haddad, a Jordanian who

immigrated to America nine years before the event 9/11. They live in Tucson

Arizona, some kilometers from the ground zero in New York. Jassim and Salwa

are the main characters in the novel and their life has changed as the effect of

9/11.

Salwa knew something like this was coming, had been waiting for the

moment when it become spoken. “I am sorry to hear that. Are you

planning to have every Arab arrested now?” she paused for just a second.

“do you not use your brains? This country has more than fifty million

people in it, and you’re worried about your tacky little store. But now

you’ll have a lot talk about in school. You can say you saw a real live Arab

and had to call security on him” (Halaby 30)

Salwa and Jassim are shopping in a store, when Salwa is busy to check

some clothes that she wants to buy and Jassim waits for her by staring at the

motorcycle in front of the store. There is a woman who talks in a handy talky and

follows Jassim. Then Salwa has a conversation with that woman, and she says that
 Andriani 65

one of her staff reports that there is a suspicious Arab man who keeps staring at

the motorcycle as if he would rob everything in the store and run away by driving

the motorcycle.

The staff’s name is Amber, and she reports to the security store that she is

scared to one of customers who is an Arabic person. Amber has excessive

prejudice toward American Muslims because one of her family became the victim

of 9/11 event. Salwa is angry to the staff of the store because of their excessive

prejudice to her husband. She doesn’t think that the event of 9/11 has great effect

to her race, especially to her husband. After having long conversation and getting

apologize from the staff store, salwa and Jassim leave the store.

From the above quotation the portrait of American Muslims after 9/11 can

be seen, how they have to face discrimination and prejudice based on their race

and their religion. The prejudice against American Muslims has rooted in America

since the majority Americans has only a little knowledge about Islam. Because of

this reason, many Americans associate Muslims and Islam to the negative image

such as terrorist and bombers. Unfortunately, the event of 9/11 also contributes in

raising the prejudice among Americans toward Muslims and Arabs. Americans

will be scared to everything related to Arab and Islam, because it will be linked to

the name of WTC and Pentagon hijacker or Al Qaeda.

The fighting against prejudice toward American Muslims especially after

9/11 has been conducted by Islamic organization such as CAIR (Council on

American-Islamic Relations). CAIR is a watchdog organization seeking to combat

prejudice against Islam. It specializes in fighting negative stereotypes of Muslims

 Andriani 66

and demonization of Islam in the media and discrimination in the workplace. The

big contribution of CAIR is providing an education for community on how to

fight discrimination and prejudice. CAIR also make some reports gradually on

some discrimination and prejudice against Muslims in America, such as what has

been written by the director of CAIR, Muhammad Nimer, entitled Muslims in

America after 9/11.

The effort in decreasing the number of discrimination and prejudice

against Muslims also use the development of media such as internet. It has been

elucidated by Muqtader Khan (187), that internet provides American Muslims an

excellent opportunity to share information and provide news and views service

with other Muslims. Internet also facilitates fundraising, networking, and

discussions among Muslims activists. It also gives the opportunity to Muslims for

put news concern them, such as discrimination and prejudice against them. From

those two efforts in fighting prejudice and discriminations against American

Muslims, it is hoped to decrease the significant numbers on injustice toward

American Muslims.

3.2 Racial Stereotype Against American- Muslims

The effect of 9/11 toward American Muslims as depicted in Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land also reveals racial stereotype. Stereotype is defined as

stored beliefs about the characteristic of group of people (Hamilton&Sherman,

1994). Stereotypes pertain to mental representations of different characterizing

 Andriani 67

aspects such as physical appearance, traits, abilities, attitudes, emotions intentions,

and behavior (Stangor& Lange, 1994).

Stereotype tend to be activated and used to characterize certain group of

society or ethnic especially in situations of intergroup interaction when no

information is available about the group members, such as the interaction and the

condition between Americans and Arab Muslims in America aftermath of 9/11.

The previous chapter explains that some Muslim immigrants have to face some

prejudice and stereotype from Americans related to their race, because some

Americans have the lack knowledge about Islam and their basic understanding

about Islam is associated with the violence, oil crisis and some events in the

Middle Eastern such as conflict between Israel and Palestine.

Another aspect which also influences the stereotype construction by

Americans toward American Muslims is the difficulty of Muslims in assimilating

to the general community of American. It is related to some obstacles that have to

be faced by Muslims to live in secular country such as America, because of their

position as minority ethnic and religion. Many of American Muslims prefer to

stay on their community that has the same root of religion, race and nationality

rather than to adapt with others which tend to be different from them.

The stereotypes toward Arab and Muslims can be seen from some events

in Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land. Salwa Haddad is a career and educated

woman. She works in two different work places. In the morning until late noon

she works in the Bank and after that she continues to work in Property Company

to offer and sell some houses to the customers. Salwa has original family name
 Andriani 68

Khalil. After getting married to Jassim Haddad, she changes her name to be Salwa

Haddad. Salwa is Palestinian by blood, Jordanian by residence and American by

citizenship. It means that their families are Palestinian, but they live in Jordan,

they also have ever immigrated to America and Salwa was born there. After

staying for couple years in Chicago, Salwa’s parents decided to come back to

Jordan.

Every morning, Salwa and Jassim go to work by driving their own two

cars, because they work in the different places. After the shocking event of

Tuesday in 2001, there are some events that changed almost entirely their life

including their private life and jobs. One day in the Bank where Salwa works, she

serves an American white woman customer who wants to make a kind of personal

account. Before getting the service from Salwa, the woman asks personal

questions to Salwa related to her physical appearance.

“where are you from?” asked the woman

“I am Palestinian from Jordan.”

The woman continued to look at her. Chewed it over. Spat it back out.

“what does that mean?” she asked, her thin lips pursed.

Salwa ‘s perfect eyebrows lifted. What does what mean?

“what do you mean that you are Palestinian From Jordan?” does it mean

you will steal my money and blow up my world?

(Halaby 113)

“what is the name on the account, ma’am?” Salwa asked with professional

smile, all emotions hidden.

 Andriani 69

The unnamed woman still looked at her with a stony face and thinking

eyes. “I think I’d like to work with someone else.”

Salwa’s heart thudded in anger, and she willed her blood to stay calm, to

keep away from her face. Her perfect English puddled on the floor, her

manners and kindness all scattered and soggy.

(Halaby 114)

It can be the example of how an American forms stereotype to a person

who is from Middle East and Arab race. The woman is so scared and she chooses

being served by another staff of bank that she thinks is better than Salwa. The

woman feels more comfortable to be served by the other bank staff which has the

similar race and nationality than by an Arab woman. It shows that for that woman,

an Arab Muslim is dangerous because she thinks that Salwa will steal her money

in the bank account and the money will be used for the terrorist business. This

stereotype is greater after the blowing news about Arab Muslims who always be

related to the event of 9/11.

Most Americans think that Arab-Muslims threat their life; especially with

the fact that all the plane hijackers crashing the WTC and Pentagon are men from

Middle Eastern and Muslims. This reality enhances the stereotypes that

characterize Arab and Muslims in America. For the first time, they will ask about

the race of Arab from the physical appearance such as what happens to Salwa.

Actually, Salwa doesn’t wear veil as others Arab Muslim women do. She wears

skirt and blazer in the work place as other American career women in general. The

physical appearance of Salwa encourages the woman to ask where Salwa comes
 Andriani 70

from, because she can see the thick eyes and beautiful eyebrows as one of the

physical characteristics of Arab. Then the woman begins to suspect that Salwa is

an Arab, the same race as the terrorist in 9/11.

The stereotypes of Arab -Muslims can also be seen from the event that

happens to Jassim Haddad, Salwa’s husband in his workplace. One of Jassim’s

friends in his workplace named Corey is known as a conservative and fanatic

Republican. Based on the research of Flanigan and Zingale (1983) about political

behavior of the American electorate that there is a relationship between social

characteristics and political behavior, it is because of the causal connection

between partisanship and social characteristics. They also add that typically most

of Republican are Protestant, White, and has the conservative view on the

religion. From the perspective of Flanigan and Zingale on the typical

characteristics of Republican participants, it can be assumed that most of

Republican has higher prejudice against Muslims compare to the Democrat which

most of its participants are various ethnic groups and immigrants (some of them

are Arab- Muslims immigrants). This reality is shown in the character of Corey,

Bella and Lisa; they have excessive prejudice against Jassim.

After the shocking event of 9/11, Corey begins to suspect Jassim who is an

Arab and Muslim. She invites Bella and Lisa, some staffs in the office to keep on

observing Jassim and finally Bella makes report to FBI because of the strange

attitude of Jassim after he has to face some personal problems.

On that day, Jassim feels his workday in the office runs unwell, because he

doesn’t do his ritual morning, swimming. Jassim has ritual morning that has to be
 Andriani 71

done every day; he swims every morning starting and finishing in the same time

every day. But in that morning something happens in the pool that forbids people

to swim temporally. The unbalance day continues as Jassim works in the office,

he hears what Corey said about “Crazy Mahzlims”

Yes, that had been the day when he had overheard Corey at work talking

about “Crazy Mahzlims” (Halaby 109)

The sentiment of Corey to Jassim is clearly seen from her behavior and the

way she talks to Jassim. In the office, Corey tends to keep distance from Jassim,

and she talks to Jassim and it seems that she hates Arab-Muslims. The uttering

about “Crazy Mahzlims” or “Crazy Muslim” is articulated by Corey to some of

her friends in the office, but Jassim listens indirectly to it. It can be the example

of a kind of stereotype toward Arab- Muslims, because it can be categorized

unfair treatment by saying impolite word such as “crazy” associated to Muslims.

The preference of using Mahzlims also has the tendency in showing Corey’s

dislike to Jassim, because how she pronounced the word, exaggerated the

emphasis on the "s" and made the word ugly.

There are some reasons of stereotyping. The first reason is the dislike of

other religion especially Islam, that its development will treat the existence of

another religions that have already rooted in America. Another probable reason

for stereotyping is the different physical characteristics that Muslims and Arabs

have.
 Andriani 72

3.3 Racial Hatred

The effect of 9/11 toward American Muslims as depicted in Halaby’s

Once in a Promised Land portrays condition that has to be faced aftermath 9/11.

From this novel, it can be seen some portraits of negative and positive effects of

9/11 toward American Muslims. In the previous explanation, it has been told

about the discrimination, prejudice, and stereotype toward American Muslims as

the effect of 9/11. Another effect that has been reflected by Halaby in her novel is

racial hatred, this condition also similar to the reports that has been received by

CAIR (Council on American Islamic Relations) following the six months after

9/11. CAIR has logged more than 325 complaints related to the increasing of

excessive prejudice toward American Muslims such as violence, hate crimes and

attack on mosques (Nimer 18).

Hatred is a hostile feeling directed toward another person or group that

consist of malice, repugnance, and willingness to harm and even to annihilate the

object of hatred (Bar-tal& Teichman 73). The racial hatred is a kind of attitude

that is caused by the tremendous dislike feeling toward certain race, such as Arab-

Muslims especially after preceding the event of 9/11, the excessive prejudice

which causes hatred following that incident mostly against Muslims who come

from Arab. After 9/11, in almost entire public life of America, everything related

to Arab and Islam will take great attention of Americans. It can be positive or

negative effect, some of Americans eager to know more about Islam and some

others have excessive hatred to Muslims.

 Andriani 73

Racial hatred is depicted in Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land, and it

happens to Jassim Haddad. After having miserable day because of complicated

problems in the office and at home, Jassim drives his car from the office. While

driving, Jassim thinks about Salwa’s miscarriage and what Corey has said at the

office and suddenly there is an American boy rides the skateboard along the side

of the road. His head droops forward as he glances behind him, zigzagged, and

moves crookedly, swerving from the edge to a third of the way into the road and

keeping distance from his friends. Then he pushes off and jumps, propelling

himself straight in front of Jassim’s car. Finally, the boy died because of that

accident. After being interrogated by the police and detective, it is proved that the

accident is caused by the boy and Jassim is free from the accusation.

After that accident, Jassim is haunted from the guilty. Jassim thinks that he

killed the boy. Jassim begins to search information about the boy, what his name

is and his residence. After browsing from the internet and from the information in

the local obituary page, it is known that the boy’s name Evan Ezekiel Parker; he

was born at 1985 and died at 2001. Jassim decides to meet Evan’s family to

express his condolences and to apologize about his fault in that accident.

Finally, Jassim have found the address of Evan’s home and decided to

visit his family as soon as possible. In Evan’s house, Jassim meet Mary Parker,

Evan’s mother. After having conversation and telling about his need in visiting

her house, Jassim is asked by Mary Parker about his origin race and nationality.

Mary Parker is shocked when she knows that Jassim is an Arab, because she

knows that Evan hates Arabic people since the event of 9/11. The feeling of Evan
 Andriani 74

toward Muslims is much influenced from the idea of his father, who tends to be

racist. Mary as the mother of Evan has the neutral feeling toward Muslim

especially Arab, it can be seen from how she welcomes Jassim and how she tells

Evan not to live with excessive dislike to certain race especially toward Muslims,

because according to Mary, Evan is still young to have radical and extreme view

toward Muslims.

Based on the story of Mary Parker that has been quoted above, because of

dislike feeling to Arab, Evan planned to kill Arab someday. The skateboard that

has been used by Evan in the accident is also marked the writing “Terrorist

Hunting License” (Halaby, 2007: 76). Finally, Evan has died on the wheel of

Arab’s car.

“you’re Arabic?”

“yes, I’am an Arab”

She was laughing, almost guffawing. “I’m sorry, but that is so fucked up.

See, when 9/11 happened, Evan was freaked out, totally freaked out. It

was weird, because once he was teenager, he didn’t lose it very often. But

he did then, ranted and raved about how Arabic people should all be

kicked out this country, rounded up, herded up and thrown out. I ignored

it for a while, thought he was just scared. We were all scared those people

were going to blow us all up. Then he started talking about how he wished

he could kill an Arab” (Halaby 200-201)

The story of Evan Parker in Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land can be

classified as racial hatred because of Evan’s excessive feeling of dislike to Arab-

 Andriani 75

Muslims and this feeling turns him to make something hatred based on race. It can

be assumed that Evan deliberately crashed himself to Jassim’s car because for the

first time he knows that the driver of the car is an Arab, so that Jassim who is

Arab can be accused as the killer of Evan. Conversely, some evidences say that

Jassim is not accused in that accident and he is free.

The racial hatred against Muslims is also found in the real life such as the

incident on March 25, 2002. Charles Franklin, a 41- year- old carpenter, drove a

truck and crashed it into the Islamic Center of Tallahassee at Florida State

University. No one was injured on that accident. A police spokesman said that the

man had a Bible wrapped in a blue cloth on the front seat of his truck and later

Franklin admitted that was motivated by hatred of Muslims (Nimer, 2002). This

incident has the similarity to the accident of Evan and Jassim as depicted by

Halaby’s in her novel; those two events signify that what has been illustrated by

Halaby in her work also happens in real life.

3.4 Displacement

The effect of 9/11 as explained above has provoked American Muslims to

quest their identity as American Muslims. It is caused by some events that tend to

depress American Muslims; they get racial discrimination, prejudice, and racial

hatred.

It cannot be rejected that the event of 9/11 has traumatic sense left both to

Americans and Muslims. For American Muslims, the tragedy that befell our

nation was doubly painful. First, like the rest of the country, they watch in stunned
 Andriani 76

horror as the twin towers of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were

attacked. Many wondered whether any friends or beloved ones were aboard one of

the hijacked planes or inside one of the targeted buildings. Then, when

speculation centered on people of Middle Eastern descent as suspects in these

terrible acts, Muslims were forced to turn their attention elsewhere as well. A

widespread backlash borne of misguided rage, ignorance and hate engulfed the

American Muslim and Arab-American communities.

Since the event of 9/11, Many Arab-Muslims are uncomfortable living in

America. They begin to think about going home; back to their country where they

are welcome. This also happens to Salwa Haddad. After nine years living in

America, Salwa decided to go home to Jordan for uncertain time. She goes home

alone, leaving her job in the bank and also her husband. Salwa is not comfortable

anymore living in America, a land that has given her a better future life. For nine

years living in America, the family life of Salwa and Jassim is normal as other

family. They have a house, two luxurious cars, and appropriate jobs. But after the

event of 9/11, their life changes as the other Arab- Muslims do. Jassim is fired

from his job and getting an accident that causes an American boy died.

Meanwhile, Salwa is getting miscarriage and some prejudice in her workplace.

Salwa and Jassim have problems but they never communicate to each other, this

condition increases the uncomfortable feeling of Salwa because they keep their

own personal problems which should be communicated to each other. By

suggestion from her close friend, Randa, Salwa finally decided to go home to her

own country in Jordan.

 Andriani 77

How to explain the missing? How to tell this innocent boy that lately all

she could think about was going home, being surrounded by her family, by

her sisters? How could he understand what it meant to be in a place that

didn’t want her? To have lost a baby and not really mourned it? This

sadness gripped her, shook her, squeezed something in her throat made her

eyes water. (Halaby 148)

The quotation above shows the gloomy feeling of Salwa to face some

problems in America after the tragedy of 9/11. It happens when Salwa has a

conversation with Jake in the Bank; Salwa said that America is now a place that

does not welcome her anymore. America is not a better place for Arab and

Muslims anymore, the event of 9/11 has changed it. Besides, the personal

problems also support Salwa to go home, such as her miscarriage which really left

the traumatic sense to her.

Besides causing the displacement feeling among Muslim immigrants in

America, the 9/11 event also influences the decreasing number of immigrants

from mostly Arab countries to America. Fewer people are issued green cards and

nonimmigrant visas. By 2003, the number of immigrants arriving from 22 Muslim

countries had declined by more than a third. For students, tourists and other non-

immigrants from these countries, the drop was even more dramatic, with total

visits down by nearly half

(http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/10/nyregion/10muslims.html?pagewanted=2&

_r=1).
 Andriani 78

This decreasing number of Muslim immigrants after 9/11 is a neutral

condition, since the general perception among Americans say that American

Muslims are the most targeted group to be responsible on the 9/11 event. The

other factor which influences the decreasing number of Muslim immigrants is also

the rejection of visa application by American government due to heightened

security procedures.

3.5 The Curiosity of Americans about Islam and their Sympathy toward

American Muslims

Besides causing the negative effect toward American Muslims, the event

of 9/11 also has positive effect such as the American’s curiosity about Islam. As

stated before, Islam and Arab are more visible in America after the event of 9/11

because those two terms are more often associated to that event since it has related

to the network of Al- Qaeda and the hijackers.

Halaby in Once in Promised Land depicts someone who is curious to

know more about Islam. His name is Jake and he works in the same bank as

Salwa’s. Jake is the part time teller, part time college student, and of course an

American white boy. Jake takes an Arabic course in his college for the sake of

having ability and knowledge about Islam and Arab. Jake usually invites Salwa to

get conversation using Arabic language. For the first time, Salwa is surprised to

know an American boy speaks such kind of Arabic language.

“Sabah al- khayr,” he said as he got out his black and shinny sedan
 Andriani 79

“Sabah al noor,” replied Salwa with a smile that made creases around her

eyes

“Kayf al- haal?” Jake opened his mouth so wide when he said this that

someone who read lips might think he was shouting

“mneha, alhamdullah.”

“uh, oh. What does that mean?” he smiled and stood in front of her

“it means’ fine, thanks God”

“mneha, alhamdullah. Is that right?”

“yes, except if someone is asking you how you are, you need to say

mneeh, because you are a man”

(Halaby 146)

The conversation above illustrates that there is still someone in America,

who is eager to learn about Arabic, inspite of the fact that the condition after 9/11

discourage Islam and Muslim relations. Americans in general have some racial

prejudices and stereotypes toward Arab- Muslims. But it cannot be discarded that

Islam and Muslims take a great attention in American public sphere especially

after the event of 9/11, many books about Islam and its relation to the event of

9/11 have been printed, many discussions about Islam has been held in

universities and many mosques have opened to give more understanding about

Islam and to clarify the position of Islam in the event of 9/11 (Nimer, 2002: 4).

Jake, an American college student, learns Arabic language because he is

curious about his teacher statement in the college who says that learning Arabic is

the same as learning language of opium. Opium is grown abundantly in

 Andriani 80

Afghanistan as it is known by many people that America has a great intervention

in the war against terrorism in Afghanistan. From here we can draw conclusion

that some Americans have a prejudice when they hear the word Afghanistan and

refer it to Arab as told by his teacher. But Jake refuses this statement and he

studies the Arabic language instead. Jake is not only learning Arabic language but

also having curiosity about Islam. He asks about Islam, about fasting Ramadhan,

and Eid day to Salwa, when they get spare time in the bank. Salwa is so glad to

answer Jake’s question about his curiosity of Islam as seen in the following

quotation.

“I wanted to ask you about Ramadhan.”

“sure.”

“we are almost at the end of it right now, right?”

“Right. This weekend is the Eid.”

“our teacher talked about it a little bit. What do you and your husband do

for Eid celebration”

“this year we have been invited to some friends.” The man is a Palestinian

from Syria and the woman is an American, but she lived in the Middle

East quite a bit and she cooks really well and makes a big deal for Eid”

(Halaby 147)

Jake’s curiosity in learning Arabic language and Islam is the same

condition as told by Taqrir Washington in his article Being Arab American four

Years after 9/11. Taqrir said that since the attacks of 9/11, the number of students

interested in studying Arabic and Arab culture has dramatically increased. In the
 Andriani 81

Department of Classical and Semitic Languages and Literatures at George

Washington University alone, the number of students enrolled in Arabic language

classes increased from a few dozens last year to almost three hundred. This

increase has taken place in similar departments in American universities all across

the country (http://www.taqrir.org/eng/). These institutions have witnesses

firsthand the phenomenon expressing the need and desire of American society to

understand Arab culture which has resulted in the allocation of huge budgets to

organize programs on the national level that offer full scholarships for intensive

Arabic language study for interested students such as the National Flagship

Language Program at the University of Maryland and the Center for Advanced

Arabic Proficiency at Georgetown University.

The positive effect of the event of 9/11 toward American Muslims is not

only seen from the curiosity of many Americans to Islam, but also from the

feeling of sympathy toward the condition of Muslims whom are always connected

to the event of 9/11. All Americans and Muslims condemn the event of 9/11 but

American’s respond toward Arab- Muslims is varying. Some of them develop

hatred toward Arab and Muslims and some others are feeling sympathy.

The feeling of sympathy can be looked in the depiction of Halaby’s novel

from the character of Marcus, the boss and the close friend of Jassim for long

time. After graduating from the college, Jassim is asked by Marcus to work in his

company and Jassim agreed. The terrible condition of 9/11 has changed the life of

Jassim, especially for his job.

 Andriani 82

“Marcus sat back and stared into the same empty space that Jassim was

focusing on.”Jassim, please know that I am your friend. This is not easy

time for Middle Eastern people in this country. If you need anything,

please come to me, to us. My family and I want you to know that. We

would be happy to help you if you ever need anything.

(Halaby 225-226)

The conversation between Marcus and Jassim happens when Jassim gets

trouble with Corey and Anita who reported him as suspicious people related to

9/11 to FBI. Marcus tries to support Jassim in his depressed condition that he and

his family will be ready to any help for Jassim. But finally because of strong

forces from many clients, Marcus cannot do everything to help Jassim from firing

from his job.

Although Marcus finally fires Jassim from his Job, at least for the first

time he shows his sympathy to Jassim’s condition. Marcus tries hard to discharge

Jassim from the FBI suspicious and other women staffs in his office. Marcus is in

his difficult position between to keeping Jassim on his job or to fire him, because

he knows that Jassim is a kind person and he does not have any relation to the

event of 9/11. Marcus understands that the condition of 9/11 aftermath is not

favorable to Arabs.

From the relationship between Marcus and Jassim, it shows that the

event of 9/11 causes the certain sense toward relationship between Muslim and

non- Muslims. The event of 9/11 influences the perception of non Muslim toward

Muslims as it happens toward Jassim and Marcus. Before the event of 9/11, they
 Andriani 83

have good relationship but it changes totally after that gloomy incident. The

hijackers in 9/11 were not only hijacking the planes to destroy the symbol of

American prosperity but they also hijack Islam to reclaim their fundamentalist

ideology. They have successful in destroying the good relationship between

Muslims and non Muslims. Because of their attitude, the good relationship

between Marcus and Jassim must be over.

 Andriani 84

CHAPTER IV
THE IMAGE OF AMERICAN MUSLIMS IN MEDIA AFTER 9/11

In this chapter, media coverage on American Muslims after 9/11 which is

depicted in Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land will be discussed. The

explanation in this chapter will be about American Muslims’s image and

perception which will be seen from two kinds of media; radio and television

because in the novel those media depict clearly about the image of American

Muslims after 9/11. From the depiction of the novel, it can be hoped to get the

illustration of American Muslims image in media in the real life.

In the early morning of September 11th, 2001 there are groups of hijackers

taking control of four different planes and causing the collapse of two main

buildings in America; pentagon and WTC. This tragedy was covered extensively

by the media especially television which was the primary source of news, images,

and information about this event for the majority of Americans (Carey in

Grossberg 5).

Many Americans get intensively to gain the information about the event of

9/11 from media, since media also provide sensational news regarding to 9/11. It

presents news about the event of 9/11 from different perspective, but some of

them are linked that event to Islam and Muslims. There are number of ways in

which the event of 9/11 can be used to facilitate a discussion about the mass

media today including the representation of Muslims and those of Middle Eastern

descent in the media.

 Andriani 85

The perception of Americans generally has been shaped by the

contribution of media, such as television, radio, and newspaper. The portrayal of

Arab and Muslim people in the western media is "typically stereotypical and

negative", according to a new study of perceptions of Islam. In printed media

stereotypes are not so obvious, except in cartoon caricatures, but they still occur

and anti-Muslim bias is more insidious. The terms Islamic or Muslim are linked to

extremism, militant, jihads, as if they belonged together inextricably and naturally

(Muslim extremist, Islamic terror, and Islamic war).

In many cases, the press talks and writes about Muslims in ways that

would not be acceptable if the reference were to Jewish, black, or fundamentalist

Christians. The report says that the portrayal of Islam is improving in "certain

prestigious news organizations" but that TV news continues to be dominated by

coverage of terrorist attacks and hostage images "to shock and engage jaded

viewers".

Western media organizations must see normal Muslims in everyday life,

as professionals, educators, parents, community leaders, and participants. The

study claims that TV news and documentaries have the strongest influence on

people's views of Islam, followed by newspaper coverage. Of the 2,420 people

interviewed in the US and Western Europe, nearly half said TV documentaries

had a strong or very strong influence on their views of American Muslims. For

television news, the figure was 41%, while 36% of respondents said the same

about newspaper coverage. Around 37% of respondents said that they had very

limited exposure to news and information about Islam, while nearly three-quarters
 Andriani 86

of respondents said that the media depicts American Muslims and Islam

accurately.

(http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/14/pressandpublishing.raceintheuk).

This chapter will show the portrait of American Muslims after 9/11 in the

media; radio and television as depicted in Laila Halaby’s Once in a Promised

Land. From the depiction in literary work, it is hoped that it will give the portrait

of American Muslims image in media, how they are stereotyped, discriminated

and misunderstood by the media coverage. Meanwhile, it cannot be denied that

media has a great contribution on shaping people’s perception. The fact that many

Americans have little knowledge about Islam forces media to release the right

news in order that Americans get the best information about Islam.

4.1 Image and Perception toward American Muslims in Radio

Radio is one of the media used in America, beside newspaper and

television. Radio is considered to be the most cost effective, consistent, and

failure-proof way of communication compared to the many other options

available such as cellular phones, satellite communication, etc. because they

transmit signals directly from the radio device to other stations. Under this reason,

radio still becomes favorite media in the big country such as America (Lawrence,

2006). Radio provides some useful information and entertainment. It broadcasts

news domestically and internationally. It also sounds favorite and popular music

for the young listener.

 Andriani 87

Radio has the same function as other mass media such as newspaper and

television, but they have their own medium. The medium of Radio is audio, while

the medium of newspaper is focusing on its writing and picture. As explained by

Kuspriyantoro (2002), radio is an attractive audio media which broadcasts human

voice to express something. Radio is also the most intimate media with such target

audience is not as far as other media in distance; the message of the radio

broadcasting is like a man speaking directly to us. Most of listeners of radio in

recent years listen to the radio in their spare times, such as waiting for the traffic

jam in the cars.

Being the media which broadcasts the information, radio also has the

contribution in shaping the perception of Americans toward American Muslims

especially after 9/11. Within hours after destructing twin towers, American press

released headline news related to the attack as well as radio. They condemned and

deplored the attack.

In Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land, it also portrays the depiction of

broadcasting news about condemning the event of 9/11 which was related to

Muslims in radio.

“She pressed the forward scan button on the radio, searching for the station

with soft rock and no commercials. A man’s voice blared out: “is anyone

fed up yet? Is anyone sick of nothing being done about all those Arab

terrorist? In the name of Jesus Christ! They live with us. Among us!

Mahzlims who are just waiting to attack us. They just want…”

(Halaby 56)
 Andriani 88

It happens when Salwa drives his car after working in the bank. On the

way to the next workplace, Salwa turns on the radio and searches for the

interesting station. Suddenly, she finds the man’s voice condemns the event of

9/11 which he relates to the Arab Muslims as those who are responsible for the

attack.

The man’s voice sounds a kind of provocation to the audience. “is anyone

fed up yet”. It means that he asks everyone whether they feel annoyed about the

presence of the Arab-Muslims in America. This man’s voice is like blaming Arab-

Muslims to be responsible to that attack.

The man’s voice also provokes the listeners that Arab-Muslims which

have to be responsible to the event of 9/11 are living with us. The using of word

“us” refers to the Americans, especially white Christian Americans. It can be

looked to the next statement that he calls Jesus Christ. The using of Jesus Christ in

this context as the defense to the certain religious communities, they are Christian

and Catholic as the largest religious communities in America. The calling of Jesus

Christ also provokes the followers of Jesus to condemn the attack and to give the

impression that Muslims are linked to the event of 9/11.

Muslims in the mind of the man in that radio are dangerous and annoyed

in the situation of America after 9/11. He generalizes that all Arab-Muslims are

associated to the group of hijackers and Al- Qaeda network. Arab-Muslims, who

live among other Americans, speak the same language, obey the same nation rule

and have the same president, have to be blamed and discriminated because they

have same root as the hijackers and Osama bin Laden. The man’s voice
 Andriani 89

aggravates that someday may be Arab-Muslims in America are waiting to blow

and to attack America.

From the image of Arab-Muslims in radio through the man’s voice, it can

be seen the unfair treatment toward American Muslims because they are portrayed

and assumed as the ethnic who have the relation to the event of 9/11. Arab-

Muslims’ image in the man’s voice in radio is as like as people who must be

deported from America because their presence will threat Americans. But it is

still important to remember that we do not live in a media world. The media bring

the world to us and help to shape the world, but there is still reality outside the

media. It can be perceived that not all the information in the media especially

about Muslims is the same as the reality outside the media. American must look

Muslims objectively, not based on the media only.

The lack knowledge of most Americans about Islam and Muslims

sometime cause them treat Muslims as “other”. It means that they assume that

Muslims are not as the member of American society which are suitable to become

friend and relatives. They think that most of Muslims are linked to terrorists, al

Qaeda and Saddam Husein and Muslims’ presence will treat them.

The man’s voice in radio presents stereotype against Muslims which is

sounded in mass media such as Radio. The information he broadcasts in radio is

absorbed by many listeners, some of them are have good knowledge about Islam

and some of them do not. This information causes misperception among many

people because it affects them how they treat Muslims; they can be sympathy or

extreme dislike toward Muslims.

 Andriani 90

The stereotype against Muslims is also broadcasted in the radio call- in

program by Congressman Howard Coble (R- NC). It said that internment of Arab

Americans is worth discussion because “some of these Arab Americans are

probably intent on doing harm to Americans” (Salaita 158). It indicates that radio

usually become the media in presenting misinformation about Muslims, such what

has been illustrated by Halaby in her novel through the man’s voice and the

program by Congressman Howard Coble.

The assumption of most Americans toward Muslims is gained from the

information provided by media such as radio. As stated by Grossberg, media has

the power to construct the idea and represent cultural identities including

representation as stereotype and representation as cultural construction (235). It

means that media has the power to represent the various social identities in the

world as stereotyping implies that there is some correct image of social group’s

identity that sometimes distorted in the media’s portrayal of that group.

Sometimes, someone who never knows about certain people such as Arab-

Muslims will think that the people are like what they have seen, heard, or read

about in the media. In this sense, media has a contribution to stereotype the

portrayal of certain social group, such as the portrayal of Arab-Muslims in media.

Halaby in her novel also reveals the positive image and positive respond of

American media toward Arab-Muslims especially after 9/11. There is someone

who has a radio program discussing about what really happens in America,

including about Arab-Muslims condition after 9/11.

 Andriani 91

“hey, Jassim, do you ever listen to Amy Goodman?”

“no, who is that?”

“She has Radio Program. She talks about what is really happening in this

country, about the scores of Arabs and Pakistanis and other Muslims who

have been arrested on baseless allegations, who are being held who knows

where and are not allowed contact with their families, and how they may

deported because of visa violation” (Halaby 226)

The novel tells about the gloomy mood of Jassim because of the FBI

investigation. As a close friend, Marcus advices Jassim to have a lawyer, he also

talks about Amy Goodman who has a radio program. According to Marcus, the

program of Goodman broadcasts about the condition of Arab-Muslims who

experience the violence and discrimination after the event of 9/11. The program

makes Marcus realize that the government will stand up for the sake of justifying

what they see as revenge. This is the reason why Marcus tells about the radio

program of Amy Goodman.

The radio program of Amy Goodman can be classified as the defending to

the condition of Arab-Muslims after 9/11, because it broadcasts about the reality

of what is happening toward Arab-Muslims in America, such as the violation,

discrimination, visa deportation which is experienced by most Arab-Muslims.

From this program, Americans and government will know the real situation in

their country, about the certain ethnic group in America who experiences the

miserable treatment after 9/11.

 Andriani 92

After President Bush signed the policy against terrorism which is well

known as USA PATRIOT ACT, one of law in that act permits to investigate and

to deport everyone suspected of having links with terrorist. A year after 9/11, a

significant number of non U.S nationals originally from Arab-Muslims countries

remained in detention. Most of these people are believed to have overstayed their

migration visa and this cause many people from Arab countries are deported from

America (Nimer 26). From this fact, there is a kind of program which is

broadcasted by Amy Goodman as depicted by Halaby in her novel; one of the

contents in that program is to bridge some people who lose the contact with their

relatives because of visa deportation.

The positive program providing information about American Muslims is

also broadcasted by Michigan Radio partnering with the University of Michigan

Center for Middle Eastern and North African Studies. The program presents a new

project examining the religious, ethnic, and social lives of the state's diverse

Muslim population. The radio program also explores some topics such as sharia

law, halal meats, and the construction of a new mosque in Grand Rapids.

Additionally, Michigan Radio's reporters will profile individual Muslims who

have recently converted to Islam (http://www.arabamericannews.com/news/index.

php?mod=article&cat=Community&article).

From the broadcasting radio program which provides the information

about American Muslims such as Michigan Radio, it is hoped that it will give

additional information and knowledge about Islam and the daily life of Muslims

in America. Besides giving accurate information about Islam and Muslims for
 Andriani 93

Americans, it also helps Muslims in America to get beneficial information in

many kinds of topic about Islam.

The Islamic program in Radio is also broadcasted by CBC radio on

September, 23. It presented interview from Islamic spokesman, Shaykh Hamza

Yusuf, a white American convert to Islam who founded and directed the Zaytuna

Institute in San Francisco. In that interview, Shaykh Hamza said that Islam has

been hijacked by terrorist for supporting their ideology, it is important to pose

Islamic thought in the right context that Islam is religion of peace. He also adds

that 9/11 has transformed Islam from faith into a political system and ideology,

Muslims and non Muslims must understand the difference between the political

ideology which is followed by extremist Islam and Islamic religion which is

practiced by 1.2 billion Muslims around the world (Leonard 2295).

From the depiction of Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land and some

examples of radio program in America preceding 9/11, it is illustrated that there

are two ways of American media in portraying Arab-Muslims after 9/11; they are

positive and negative. The negative image of Arab-Muslims is revealed through

the man’s voice in radio broadcasting who talks about the dangerous of Muslims

presence in America and the program by Congressman Howard Coble. The

positive image can be seen from the radio program of Amy Goodman in Halaby’s

novel, the Michigan radio program and the interview of Syaikh Hamzah in one of

radio broadcastings which tells the reality of Arab-Muslims’ condition in America

and reclaims the position of American Muslims in the context of 9/11 attack .
 Andriani 94

4. 2. Image and Perception toward American Muslims in Television

Television becomes the primary mode of entertainment and information

for millions of people worldwide including America. As other media in America,

television also has the great impact on shaping the perception among Americans

toward Arab-Muslims.

According to Jack Shaheen (in Karim 119) television tends to perpetuate

four primary stereotypes about Arab: they are barbaric, uncultured, terrorist and

fabulously wealthy. Some Muslims may exhibit such characteristics, but it

presents inaccurate suggestion that they are shared by significant proportions of

Islam’s adherents.

As the multimedia technology, television in this era cannot be separated

from the human life. Television provides information, entertainment, and news

which are needed by most of people. The assumption that television has become

part of human life cannot be rejected.

The effect of television in providing news and information can shape the

perspective of someone toward something, such as the perspective of most

Americans in seeing American Muslims. It can be seen from Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land; how television contributes to lead people’s way of thinking in

understanding Islam and Muslims.

The image of Muslims which is associated to the violent has not only been

produced in newspaper, radio and television, but also generally appears as the

representation of the Muslims in film, advertising, and cartoon. As told by Jack

Shaheen (in Elaasar 22-23) that Hollywood has the roots of Arab bias and
 Andriani 95

suggests that this bias has affected American’s view toward Muslims. He has

spent years investigating the trends of Arab-Muslims bias and documented in his

book The TV Arab, according to Shaheen, over 21 major movies released in the

last ten years show U.S military killing Arab, this includes such as Iron Eagle,

Death before Dishonor, Patriot Games, Delta Force etc. The stereotype against

Muslims is also presented in cartoon such as what has been run by New York

Times. It published a cartoon with a bomb-wielding, mean looking Arab and a

caption that reads “orthodox and conservative” (24). The violence against

Muslims is also presented in the form of Muhammad drawing cartoon contest

which is held by a Facebook group named “Draw Muhammad Day”. This

competition is controversial and causes many protest among facebookers (the user

of facebook) since there is a prohibition among Muslims to draw the prophet of

Muhammad(http://www.detiknews.com/read/2010/05/19/051014/1359646/10/lom

bamenggambar-sketsa-nabi-muhammad-muncul-di-facebook). From the examples

of some films, cartoon and advertising there is a bias and stereotype among

Americans in illustrating Muslims in media.

Following the 9/11 attacks, there was generally one perspective on the

multiple TV networks in America. The focus of the information in the TV was

primarily on the immediate reaction rather than on the larger issues. After some

initial fumbling, the government was soon able to establish the frames and the

agendas according to which unfolding story was generally reported. In this case,

media has been controlled by the government to which will be reported such as

the excessive news about the involving of Al Qaeda network and Afghanistan in
 Andriani 96

the event of 9/11. This information was especially reported in television which is

watched by most of Americans. This report is one of the causes in shaping the

prejudice and misunderstanding toward Arab-Muslims among Americans.

In this condition, media failed to provide a nuanced and contextual

understanding of Islam and Muslims. Because of this failure, most of Americans

do not get accurate information related to the event of 9/11 and they understand

about Muslims and Islam based on what they have seen and read in the media.

Nightly Penny watched the late news as well as the evening news; she had

become obsessed by it ever since the Twin Towers had been destroyed.

Each time President spoke about the War on Terror she was outraged,

sickened that there were people so sinister that they would want to harm

innocent Americans. When he talked about all American men and women

who served for freedom, freedom all around the world, she felt an

unspeakable pride. If she had had money, she would have sent it to him; if

she had been younger, she would have enlisted, showed all those terrorists

what Americans was made of, how they were continuing the great history

of this country, getting out there and saving poor people from the

oppression of living in their backward countries. As the president said,

Americans were bringing democracy to places that knew only tyranny and

terror, that didn’t have the freedom to choose. (Halaby 280)

 Andriani 97

The quotation is taken from the house of Penny, an American woman who

becomes Jassim’s close friend. Penny who has two children is a waitress in

restaurant. She knows Jassim when he gets morning coffee in her restaurant. Soon

they get intimate conversation and became close friend.

As an American, Penny is proud to be an American citizen which is well

known as democratic country. America as democratic country is always

denounced by the American President, as well as to be the defense in doing

invasion to Iraq and Afghanistan in the name of War on Terror. As the good

citizen in the depiction of the novel, Penny has the feeling to support what has

been decided by the government and President in doing War on Terror. She

argues that Iraq and Afghanistan are the countries which should be helped by

America. This argument is affected by the President’s speech which says that

America should help the countries especially in Middle Eastern Countries to reach

its democracy and unbound them from its government tyranny such as Iraq

President, Saddam Husein.

In this case, media especially television has the contribution in informing

the government policy, especially related to the War on Terrorism and the

invasion of Iraq. The information presented in the television has the great effect

on American perception in criticizing American policy, such as what is occurring

to Penny. Penny in this scene is illustrated as the American citizen who supports

the government policy regarding to the War on Terrorism, it can be seen from her

pride to be an American helping the countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan in

reaching the freedom. Penny is intense in watching the late news in television as
 Andriani 98

well as the evening news since the event of 9/11. She updates the news regarding

to 9/11 event as well as the government policy program to counter attack terrorism

to gain the accurate information about it. Because she doesn’t have a television,

she always comes to Trini’s room, to watch the television especially evening

news.

Although Penny supports War on Terrorism, she does not have any

prejudice to Arab- Muslims. It has been a common assumption that following the

event of 9/11 and the tremendous news about it, most of American has excessive

prejudice against Arab- Muslims. But Penny is still having friendship with Jassim.

They usually share together about the family and personal problems. Jassim is

comfortable to share his feeling and his problem to Penny, since Penny can

understand Jassim’s problem. Although they have different race and religion

which has high tension following 9/11, they can dispel prejudice between them

and become close friends.

The opposite condition is found in the character of Trini. Trini is Penny’s

friend; she lives in the same house as Penny. Trini thinks that Jassim is Penny’s

boy friend. She disagrees if Penny has the relationship with Jassim, because she

has negative thinking and misunderstanding about Arab.

“Hey, Penny, watch yourself with this guy. You don’t know what he’s

into. Men over there can marry four women at once make them wear those

sheets over their whole bodies” (Halaby 281)

 Andriani 99

When Penny and Trini are watching the late news in television together,

they have different argument about Arab and Islam. Their argument is as the

respond to the news about the invasion of America to Iraq and Afghanistan which

is presented in the sensational news. Trini also supports to what has been decided

by American government about War on Terrorism but she has prejudice against

Arab.

In the quotation above, it shows Trini’s prejudice against Arab. Because of

her little knowledge about Islam is gotten from the presented news in television,

Trini assumes that Arab man will marry many women at once, because Islam

legalizes polygamy. But she does not understand the essence and the requirements

of doing polygamy. Trini also argues that Islam makes Arab women wear a long

dress that covers their bodies. From Trini’s argument, it can be seen that Trini

presumption leads her into the idea that Islam does not take side in women. This

assumption causes Trini evokes Penny to keep distance to Jassim because he is an

Arab and Muslims. Sometimes, Trini and Penny get over quarrel because of the

different argument in seeing Muslims, as like as the depiction scene above. Trini

tends to have a bias view against Muslims, while Penny always rejects it by

having neutral perception toward Muslims, by saying that Jassim is from Jordan

not from Afghanistan and he is very different from those people who attack

America in 9/11.

This scene illustrates that not all Americans have the same perception

toward Muslims, especially regarding to 9/11 event. The different perception

between Trini and Penny shows that in other side, some Americans have the
 Andriani 100

proper information about Muslims, and another one are not. There are some

aspects which influences it such as the information they get and the relationship

between non Muslims and Muslims. This relationship assists non Muslims in

understanding Muslims accurately, and it reduces the prejudice between them.

Media such as radio and television has important role in shaping

American’s perception toward Muslims. Their perceptions are shaped by totality

of various types of mass media mediated through description information and

images. Actually it is difficult to assess how many Americans do have Muslims

relatives, friends, and acquaintances. As exposed by Nacos and Reyna (2007) that

in poll conducted three weeks after 9/11, 41 percent of respondents claimed to

know someone who is Muslim, but five months later only 28 percent acquainted

with a Muslims. It signifies that most of Americans do not know well who

Muslims are; they know Muslims from what they get from the information

presented by media.

The visual image in television gives more influence in shaping the

perception to the certain race, especially to Arab-Muslims after the event of 9/11

because the depiction of certain race in the news affected whether news

consumers formed more positive or negative attitudes about the depicted people

(Nacos and Reyna 39-40). It happens to Trini who builds her assumption based on

what she has seen in the television. It causes Trini has negative prejudice against

Arab- Muslims.

Since the overwhelmingly majority of Americans get most of their news

from electronic media and not from printed media, the impact of television images
 Andriani 101

on the public deserves particular attention in the context of terrorism and

counterterrorism. Erick C. Nasbet and James Shanahan research (MSRG special

report 57) finds the data showing that respondents who pay attention to television

news about national politics and the War and Terror are more likely to believe that

a terrorist attack will occur in the next 12 months than those who less pay

attention to television. It means that someone who always updates the information

from the news in television has more fearful to the attack of terrorism than

someone who has less attention to the updating news.

Moreover, the research also finds that individuals with a high fear to

terrorist strikes are far more supportive of government measures designed to

restrict Muslim’s civil liberties than are people with low level of fear. This

research is well illustrated from the two characters in Halaby’s Once in Promised

Land, Trini and Penny who have high level attention toward national politics

news in television. They update information about War on Terrorism news, but

both of them have different perspective in seeing the position of Arab-Muslims;

Trini has more negative attitude and perception toward Muslims than Penny has.

Penny has positive perception toward Muslims. The different perspective on

certain group of ethnic usually happens because of lack knowledge and lack of

interaction among social groups. It is illustrated from the different perceptions

between Trini and Penny in seeing Muslims. Penny has close relationship with

Jassim, and it makes her know well about Jassim and his background ethnicity

and religion. The interaction between Jassim and Penny decreases the

misperception between them, especially to Penny in seeing Arab-Muslims after

 Andriani 102

the event of 9/11. The different case happens to Trini who does not has

relationship with Muslims, she gets some information about Muslims from the

media and social communication which tends to give negative prejudice toward

Muslims.
 Andriani 103

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

The event of 9/11 has left traumatic event for both Americans and

Muslims, and this becomes the turning point in the relationship between

Americans and Muslims. It is conspicuously shown in Halaby’s Once in a

Promised Land American Muslims post 9/11 as reflected by Halaby’s Jordanian

couple characters, Jassim and Salwa, that they have to face some obstacles in

socializing themselves in the American society due to their identity as immigrants

from Arab countries which is assumed to be associated with the Arabian hijackers

in 9/11.

Further analysis upon Halaby’s work points out that the obstacles emerge

in the forms of discrimination and stereotypic prejudice. It happens in the work

and public places such as mall and airport. In this research, the discrimination is

defined based on the race and religion issues; how Americans see and treat

Muslims because of their religion; Islam and their race, Arab. While racial

stereotype towards American Muslims is rooted on the general assumption among

Americans that Islam and Muslim is associated to violence and terrorist. This

assumption comes from the lack of understanding and knowledge about Islam

Americans. This assumption generates American Muslims to experience racial

hatred; a kind of attitude which is caused by tremendous dislike feeling toward

certain race such as Arab-Muslims. The analysis also shows the hard experiences

which have to be faced by some American Muslims which force them to reconcile
 Andriani 104

their identity between to be American and to be Muslims, this feeling is known as

displacement when someone does not feel at home anymore in such kind of place.

On the other side, the event of 9/11 also brings some positive effects

toward American Muslims such as the increasing of curiosity about Islam among

many Americans as indicated by the establishment “open house” in some Islamic

centers and mosques to give opportunities to Americans in gaining best

understanding about Islam. It also elevates the sympathy among Americans

toward Muslims as they get the correct information they get about Islam, some

Americans begin to realize the need to pay respect toward Muslims.

Concerning with the media coverage, it is discovered through analysis that

Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land illustrates how bias and unfair media coverage

on American Muslims after 9/11. American Muslims in media is figured as

terrorists and must be deported from America due to the anxiety of possible

potential carrying the attack. However, there are also some media which cover

American Muslims from positive one by launching programs to give more

information and knowledge about Islam.

In brief, through the analysis upon Halaby’s Once in a Promised Land, it

can be understood that it has some depictions of American Muslims’ life after

9/11 and how it has implication on Americans’ view on Muslims. In certain

aspect, it apparently constitutes a sort of attempt to provide a real portrait of

American Muslims after 9/11.

 Andriani 105

Furthermore, the experience of American Muslims after 9/11 gives the

sense toward Muslims in general to reclaim and to clarify the position of Islam in

global context, such as in the event of 9/11. Since the heightened prejudice and

discrimination toward American Muslims after 9/11, it is the obligation for

Muslims to give the right information and knowledge about Islam. The proper

knowledge about Islam among Western people in general and American

especially is very important to straighten their perception and their attitude toward

Muslims.
 Andriani 106

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York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Abdul Rauf, Imam Feisal. Seruan Azan dari Puing WTC translated by Dina

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