CELL:THE BUILDING BLOCK OF LIFE

Assignment #1
Subject: Biochemistry

CELL: THE BUILDING BLOCK OF LIFE

Cell: The building block of life 1

 INTRODUCTION:

“The structural, functional and biological unit of all living organisms. It is consisting of mass of living
organism called protoplasm.”
,
An autonomous self-replicating unit that may exist as functional independent unit of life(as in the case
of unicellular organism), or as sub-unit in a multicellular organism (such as in plants and animals) that is
specialized into carrying out particular functions towards the cause of the organism as a whole.

A membrane bound structure containing biomolecules, such as nucleic acids proteins,

and polysaccharides

The cell was discovered by robert hook in 1665.

Inside the cell thousend of chemical reactyions occurs every second it is these reactions
which keep the bodies of animal and plants working. All of these reactions take together
from the metabolism of the cell the cell is litterally a chemical factory. Like sch a factory,

 It bring in raw material such as organnic mollecules like sugar, an inorganic salts like nitrates
and phosphates
 It uses these raw material to make new mo0lecules suchn as prtiens which the cell can either use
it self or else where in the body e.g. Cell insides our bones make a very special substance called
hemoglobine. This is a substance that makes our blood red.

TYPES OF CELL:

There are two main groups of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They differ not only in their
appearance but also in their structure, reproduction, and metabolism. However, all of the cells
belong to one of the five life kingdoms. The greatest difference lies between cells of different
kingdoms.

1. PROKARYOTIC CELLS:

Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotes. These cells have few internal
structures that are distinguishable under a microscope. Cells in the monera kingdom such as
bacteria and cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) are prokaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells differ significantly from eukaryotic cells. They don't have a membrane-bound
nucleus and instead of having chromosomal DNA, their genetic information is in a circular loop
called a plasmid. Bacterial cells are very small, roughly the size of an animal mitochondrion (about
1-2µm in diameter and 10 µm long). Prokaryotic cells feature three major shapes: rod shaped,
spherical, and spiral. They serve as decomposers, agents of fermentation, and play an important
role in our own digestive system. Also, bacteria are involved in many nutrient cycles such as the
nitrogen cycle, which restores nitrate into the soil for plants. Unlike eukaryotic cells that depend on

Cell: The building block of life 2

 oxygen for their metabolism, prokaryotic cells enjoy a diverse array of metabolic functions. For
example, some bacteria use sulfur instead of oxygen in their metabolism.

EXAMPLE OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS:

2. EUKARYOTIC CELLS:

Eukaryotic cells comprise all of the life kingdoms except monera. They can be easily distinguished
through a membrane-bound nucleus.

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 Eukaryotic cells also contain many internal membrane-bound structures called organelles. These
organelles such as the mitochondrion or chloroplast serve to perform metabolic functions and
energy conversion. Other organelles like intracellular filaments provide structural support and
cellular motility. The function of individual organelles is described in detail in the cell antanomy.
.

Another important member of the eukaryote family is the plant cell. They function essentially in
the same manner as other eukaryotic cells, but there are three unique structures which set them
apart. Plastids, cell walls, and vacuoles are present only in plants cell.

PLASMA MEMBRANE:

a) All cells are enclose in a membrane that serves at there outer boundary separating the cytoplasm
from the external environment.

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 b) This membrane known as plasma membrane.
c) It allows the cell to make up and retain certain substances while executing others.
d) All biological membranes have the same basic molecular organization there consist of a double
layer (bi-layer) of phospholipids intersperse with protein.
e) The phospholipids molecules in plasma membrane are arrange in two parallel layers their non
polar hydrophobic ends phase each other, where as their hydrophilic ends are associated with
carbohydrates, proteins etc.

PROTOPLASM:

a) Protoplasm is a jelly like substance in which end less chemical activates are carried out
that ensure the life of a cell.
b) It is a mixture of many compounds arranged in a orderly manner 70% to 90% protoplasm
of a cell is water.
c) Rest consists of minerals salts and organic compounds (compounds of carbon) such as
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
d) Protoplasm exist in two forms solution state, jell state or semi solid state.
e) The exact nature of protoplasm is still unknown its complex and we don’t says yet fully
understands all the details of its organization.
f) So far we have not been able to produce the environmental conditions under which life
can originate.

CELL-WALL

a) Cell wall is the non-living component of cell. It is secreted and maintained by living portion
of cell called Protoplasm.

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 b) The chief structure of cell-wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide in addition to cellulose, pectin
and few other compounds may also be found in cell-wall.
c) A plant cell-wall can e Differentiated into three regions
 Middle lamella.
 Primary wall.
 Secondary wall.
 MIDDLE LAMELLA:
 The first formed cell plate works as a cementing layer between two
daughter cells and is called middle lamella.
 It is common layer between two cells, two cells separates when middle
lamella is dissolved.
 It is composed of calcium and magnesium pectates.


PRIMARY WALL:

 Bordering middle lamella primary wall is the first product of cell

synthesised by protoplasm.
 In young enlarging cells primary wall remains thin and elastic
becoming thick and rigid with the approach of cell maturity.
 Primary wall contains hemicelluloses up to 50%, cellulose up to 25%
and smaller amount of pectic substances.
 Hemi cellulose forms matrix of the wall in which cellulose micro
fibrils are embedded.
 SECONDARY WALL:
 Secondary wall is formed by decomposition of
cellulose at the inside of primary wall.
 It mainly consist of cellulose or varying or mixture
of cellulose.
 Secondary wall may be modified through the
deposition of lignin and other substances.

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  In the cell wall cellulose deposits in the form of
fibers the cellulose fibers each successive layer lie at different angles
increasing the strength if the cell-wall.
 At places in the cell wall the deposition of wall
material does not take place and these places are known as
PLASMODESMATA.
 It perform two important functions, firstly it
provides the major supporting frame work, secondly being hydrophilic
in nature it is capable of imbibing water and thus helps in the
movement of water and solutes towards protoplasm.

NUCLEUS:

a) Nucleus was discovered by Robert brown in 1831 it is the most important and the prominent of
the cell which controls all its activities.
b) It is commonly spherical or oval in shape but may be lobed or elongated and is surrounded by a
membrane called nuclear membrane.
c) It is double membrane structure.
d) Most cell have one, some have two or more nuclei.
e) The nuclear membrane is not a complete barrier it is perforated by nuclear pores certain
substance pass freely through these pores between the nucleus and the surrounding cellular
substances.
f) Nucleus is filled wit a protein rich substance called the NUCLEOPLASM or KARYOLYMPH.
g) In the nucleoplasm are numerous fine strands in the form of net work called chromatin net work
composed of nucleic acid (DNA).

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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES:

a) The protoplasm outside nucleus is called cytoplasm.

b) The cytoplasm has two distinct parts an outer clear ectoplasm and an inner granular endoplasm
in most cells.
c) The cytoplasm exhibits active streaming movement around the inner surface of the cell this
movement is known as cyclosis.
d) Cytoplasm is composed of several types of organelles occupying as much as half of the volume
of the cell and a fluid matrix, the cytosol in which the organelles reside.
e) The cytoplasm is a network of proteins fibers the cytoskeleton.
f) Many of the organelle and even individual molecules of the cytoplasm are thought to be attached
to the cytoskeleton.

A variety of cytoplasmic organelles are present in cells majority of them are membrane bounded so
these are grouped on the basis of membrane

A) MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES:

i. Endoplasmic reticulum.
ii. Mitochondria.
iii. Golgi coplex.
iv. Lysosomes.
v. Plastids.
vi. Peroximose
vii. Glyoxysomes.

B) NON-MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES:

i. Ribosome.
ii. Centriole.
iii. Vacuole.

MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES:

i. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
• The endoplasmic reticulum which extends from plasma membrane to the nuclear
membrane.
• It is an elaborate tube like system of lipoprotein.

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 •
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum
o Agranulated or smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
o Rough or granulated endoplasmic reticulum.
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not associated with
ribosome’s.
 It is found in steroids producing cell like adipose cells,
interstitial cells, glycogen storing cell and the muscles cells.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is heavily coated with
ribosomes on its outer surface towards cytoplasmic surface.
 Rough er occurs mostly in protein synthesizing cells.
 Such as those of the mammalian salivary glands and
pancreas.

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 ii. MITOCHONDRIA

a) Mitochondria sis universally present in the cytoplasm of animals and plants cells.
b) They are seen to be in constant motion in living cells mitochondria are the center of
aerobic respiration.
c) There are two thin membranes which form the boundary of the mitochondria both
membranes are formed of lipids and proteins.
d) The inner membrane forms irregular partitions called CRISTAE , the interior of the
mitochondria contains fluid like organic matrix, with a number of chemical compound
in it.
e) On the cristae are located enzymes and co-enzymes by means of which carbohydrate,

fatty acids and amino acids are metabolized to CO2 and H2O.

f) Energy in the form of ATP is released in this process which is stored with in
mitochondria.
g) ATP is energy rich compound and it provides energy to the cells organs for various
activates.
h) Hence mitochondria is known as the power house of the cell
i) It contains its own DNA for the direct production of their components.

iii. GOLGI APPARATUS:

a) The Golgi apparatus like thee endoplasmic reticulum is a canalicular system with sacs
but unlike the endoplasmic reticulum it has parallel arranged flattened.

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 b) After the name of its discoverer Golgi, it was named as Golgi-body, the Golgi complex
of the plants and lower invertebrates cells is usually referred as dictyosome.
c) The Golgi complex of plant cell and Golgi complex of animal cells basically have same
morphology each of them is disc-shaped and consist of central flattened plate like
compartments called CISTERNAE. peripheral network of inter connecting tubules and
peripherally occurring vesicles and golian vacuoles.
d) In addition to its finishing work the Golgi apparatus manufacture certain
macromolecules by itself; many polysaccharides secreted by cells like cell-wall and cell
plate material in plant cell are Golgi product.

iv. LYSOSOMES:

a) These are spherical bodies a few micrometer in diameter surrounded by a single

membrane, originated by Golgi apparatus and containing digestive enzymes.
b) They occur only in the cytoplasm of animal cells, and function in the digestion of
material taken into the cell by phagocytosis as bacteria are ingested by white blood
corpuscles.
c) Normally they function as destroyers of foreign particles and worn out cellular
components.
d) When the membrane of Lysosomes is ruptured the cell undergoes chemical breakdown
or lysis.
e) Hence cell destroys it self by digesting its own proteins, Lysosomes have been refer as
“suicide sacs” and this process is known ass AUTOPHAGY.

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 v. PLASTIDS:

a) They are especial protoplasmic membrane bound organelles which function as

chemical synthesizers and storage bodies.
b) Plastids occur in greatest number in cells of plant and in the primitine single called
organism the protests.
c) There are three types of plastids
o Chloroplast.
o Chromoplast.
o Leucoplast.
 CHROLOPLAST:
 The most common type of plastids is chloroplasts containing
chlorophyll which gives plants their green colour
 It is of great importance in the manufacture of food by the
process of photosynthesis.
 It has its own DNA and RNA.


 CHROMOPLAST:
 They have pigments xanthophylls and
carotene.
 The Chromoplast is responsible for the
variation of colour combination in flowers, fruits and other
coloured parts except green.
LEUCOPLAST:

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  These are colourless plastids
which develop in the absence of sunlight and are thus
commonly found in all under ground parts of the plants.
 They store the food material as
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

VI GLYOXYSOME:

a) Another type of microbodies is Glyoxysomes.

b) Glyoxysomes contain enzymes that can metabolize some of the molecules
involved in the photosynthetic process and respiration through oxidation of fatty
acid.

CYTOSKELETON: The cytosol is organized into three dimensional network fibers

proteins called cytoskeleton

i. It plays fundamental roles in mitosis, meiosis, cytokinesis, cell-wall

deposition, the maintenance of cell-shape and cell differentiation.
ii. There are two major type of cytoskeleton found in cells; microtubules and
microfilaments.
iii. Microtubules are hollow cylinders with an outer diameter of 25nm
iv. They are solid with a diameter of 7nm.
v. Both the microtubules and microfilaments are made up of globular proteins.
vi. Microtubules are composed of the protein tubulin and micro filaments are
composed of the protein actin.
vii. A single microtubules consist of hundreds of thousands of tubulin sub-unit
usually arrange in 13 columns called protofilaments.

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NON-MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES:

RIBOSOMES:

i. These are so named because they contain high concentration of ribonucleic

acid (RNA).
ii. These small structures are sites of proteins synthesis in all cell types
prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic cells.
iii. They are found freely dispersed in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cell.
iv. In eukaryotic cells they are found free as well as attached to endoplasmic
reticulum.

v. They are consisting of 40 or more different kinds of proteins.

vi. Ribosomes may regard as :protein factories”
vii. Each ribosome consists of two unequal subunits.

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 viii. The larger sub unit is dome-shaped and smaller one form a cap on the flat
surface of larger sub unit.

CENTRIOLES:

i. In the cytoplasm near nucleus most of the animal cells and the cells of certain
lower plants a centriole is commonly present.
ii. The higher plants generally lack centriole.
iii. Each centrosome consists of two cylinders called centriole lying perpendicular to
one another.

iv. Each cylinder is of about 0.2 m.m in diameter composed of 9 parallel triplets of
hollow cylindrical microtubules.
v. During cell division the centriole replicates and moves to opposite side of the cell
and thread like fibers being to radiate from centriole in all directions called
ASTRAL RAYS

VACUOLES:

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 i. Generally vacuoles are nonprotoplasmic liquid filled cavities in the cytoplasm and are
surrounded by a membrane called TONOPLAST.
ii. It is a selectively permeable membrane it allows the certain substance to enter in the
vacuoles.
iii. They are temporarily formed at the time of their need in animal cells and are conspicuous
organelles of plats cells
iv. The vacuoles in plants cell are filled with cell sap and act as a store house which often
plays role in plant defence .

SUMMERY
 Cell is a basic structural and functional unit of all living organism consist of
membrane and protoplasm.
 There are two types of cells Prokaryotic cells, Eukaryotic cells.
 The membrane which separates cytoplasm from the external environment called
cell-membrane or plasma membrane.
 There are two components of plasma membrane phospholipids and proteins.
 Important function of cell membrane is to protect the protoplasm.

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  Plants cells has non-living part made up of mainly cellulose called cell wall.
 Nucleus is a central and controlling part of the cell.
 Cytoplasm has two types of organelles, membrane bounded and non-membrane
bounded.
 Endoplasmic reticulum are complex network of channels extend from plasma
membrane to nuclear membrane.
 Golgi apparatus is a canalicular system with sacs parallel arranged flattened
membrane bound.
 Lysosomes are spherical, single membrane bounded sacules, containing digestive
enzymes also called “suicide sacs”.
 Plastids are found in plants cells as chemical synthesizers and storage bodies.
 Mitochondria or chondrisomes are the power house of cell.
 Peroximose are micro bodies that contain enzymes for transferring hydrogen atom
to oxygen.
 Glyoxysomes another type of microbodies responsible to metabolise some of the
molecules of photosynthesis and respiration.
 Network of fibrous protein give three dimensional structure to cell called
cytoskeleton.
 Ribosomes are may be regard as protein factory.
 Centriole are the dark bodies appear near nucleus before cell-division in animal
and low plants cell.
 Vacuoles are nonprotoplasmic liquid filled cavities surrounded by tonoplast.

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