Water Supply 379
Chapter 11
INTRODUCTION
Technology continues to develop new meth-
ods and materials for extinguishing fires. How-
ever, water still remains the primary extinguish-
ing agent because of its universal abundance and
ability to absorb heat. Two primary advantages
of water are that it can be conveyed long dis-
tances and it can be easily stored. These are also
the fundamental principles of a water supply
system. Because water remains the primary ex-
tinguishing agent used by firefighters, it is im-
portant that they have a good working knowl-
edge of water supply systems.
This chapter covers the principles of municipal
water supply systems and the methods of moving
water throughout the system. It includes a descrip-
tion of the components of the water distribution
system and the types of pressure found within the
system. The chapter also explains the components
of fire hydrants, how they are located, and how they
are maintained. Finally, alternative water sup-
plies such as lakes and ponds are discussed along
with the methods of moving the water from the
source to the fire by water shuttles and relay
pumping.
PRINCIPLES OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY
SYSTEMS
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.14(a); 4-5.1(a); 4-5.4(a)]
Public and/or private water systems provide
the methods for supplying water to populated ar-
eas. As the population increases in rural areas,
rural communities seek to improve water distribu-
tion systems from reliable sources.
The water department may be a separate, city-
operated utility or a regional or private water
Water Supply
authority. Its principal function is to provide po-
table water. Water department officials should be
considered the experts in water supply problems.
The fire department must work with the water
department in planning fire protection coverage.
Water department officials should realize that fire
departments are vitally concerned with water sup-
ply and work with them on water supply needs and
the locations and types of fire hydrants.
The intricate working parts of a water system
are many and varied. Basically, the system is
composed of the following fundamental compo-
nents, which are explored in the following subsec-
tions (Figure 11.1):
• Source of water supply
• Means of moving water
• Water processing or treatment facilities
• Water distribution system, including stor-
age
Sources of Water Supply
The primary water supply can be obtained from
either surface water or groundwater. Although
most water systems are supplied from only one
source, there are instances where both sources are
used. Two examples of surface water supply are
rivers and lakes. Groundwater supply can be water
wells or water-producing springs (Figures 11.2 a
and b).
The amount of water that a community needs
can be determined by an engineering estimate.
This estimate is the total amount of water needed
for domestic and industrial use and for fire
fighting use. In cities, the domestic/industrial
requirements far exceed that required for fire
380 ESSENTIALS

Figure 11.2b Ground-level storage tanks can supply large amounts of

water for fire fighting operations.

protection. In small towns, the requirements for

fire protection exceed other requirements.
Means of Moving Water
There are three methods of moving water in a
system:
• Direct pumping system
• Gravity system
• Combination system
DIRECT PUMPING SYSTEM
Direct pumping systems use one or more
pumps that take water from the primary source
and discharge it through the filtration and treat-
ment processes (Figure 11.3). From there, a se-
ries of pumps force the water into the distribu-
tion system. If purification of the water is not
needed, the water can be pumped directly into
the distribution system from the primary source.
Failures in supply lines and pumps can usually

Figure 11.1 There are four components of any municipal water supply
system.

Figure 11.2a Open-ground reservoirs are generally located at the water

treatment plant and may be used as a water source for fire fighting
operations. Figure 11.3 Municipal water supply pumps.
 Water Supply 381
be overcome by duplicating these units and pro-
viding a secondary power source.

GRAVITY SYSTEM
A gravity system uses a primary water source
located at a higher elevation than the distribution
system. The gravity flow from the higher elevation
provides the water pressure (Figure 11.4). This
pressure is usually only sufficient when the pri-
mary water source is located at least several hun-
dred feet (meters) higher than the highest point in
the water distribution system. The most common
examples include a mountain reservoir that sup-
plies water to a city below or a system of elevated
tanks in a city itself.

COMBINATION SYSTEM
Most communities use a combination of the
direct pumping and gravity systems. In most cases,
the gravity flow is supplied by elevated storage
tanks (Figure 11.5). These tanks serve as emer-
gency storage and provide adequate pressure
through the use of gravity. When the system pres-
sure is high during periods of low consumption,
automatic valves open and allow the elevated stor-
age tanks to fill. When the pressure drops during
periods of heavy consumption, the storage contain-
ers provide extra water by feeding it back into the
distribution system. Providing a good combination
system involves reliable, duplicated equipment
and proper-sized storage containers that are stra-
tegically located.
The storage of water in elevated reservoirs can
also ensure water supply when the system becomes
Figure 11.5 An elevated storage tank.
otherwise inoperative. Storage should be sufficient
to provide domestic and industrial demands plus
the demands expected in fire fighting operations.
Such storage should also be sufficient to permit
making most repairs, alterations, or additions to
the system. Location of the storage and the capac-
ity of the mains leading from this storage are also
important factors.
Many industries provide their own private sys-
tems, such as elevated storage tanks, that are
available to the fire department (Figure 11.6).

Figure 11.4 Gravity systems rely on natural forces to move water within the system.
382 ESSENTIALS
Water for fire protection may be available to some
communities from storage systems, such as cis-
terns, that are considered a part of the distribu-
tion system. The fire department pumper re-
moves the water from these sources by draft
(process of obtaining water from a static source
into a pump that is above the source’s level) and
provides pressure by its pump.
Processing or Treatment Facilities
The treatment of water for the water supply
system is a vital process. Water is treated to re-
move contaminants that may be detrimental to the
health of those who use or drink it. Water may be
treated by coagulation, sedimentation, filtration,
or the addition of chemicals, bacteria, or other
organisms. In addition to removing things from the
water, some things may be added such as fluoride
or oxygen.
The fire department’s main concern regarding
treatment facilities is that a maintenance error,
natural disaster, loss of power supply, or fire could
disable the pumping station(s) or severely hamper
Figure 11.6 An industry’s private water supply.
Figure 11.7 A typical distribution system arrangement.
the purification process. Any of these situations
would drastically reduce the volume and pressure
of water available for fire fighting operations. An-
other problem would be the inability of the treat-
ment system to process water fast enough to meet
the demand. In either case, fire officials must have
a plan to deal with these potential shortfalls.
Distribution System
The distribution system of the overall water
supply system is the part that receives the water
from the pumping station and delivers it through-
out the area served (Figure 11.7). The ability of a
water system to deliver an adequate quantity of
water relies upon the carrying capacity of the
system’s network of pipes. When water flows
through pipes, its movement causes friction that
results in a reduction of pressure. There is much
less pressure loss in a water distribution system
when fire hydrants are supplied from two or more
directions. A fire hydrant that receives water from
only one direction is known as a dead-end hydrant
(Figure 11.8). When a fire hydrant receives water
from two or more directions, it is said to have
circulating feed or a looped line (Figure 11.9). A
distribution system that provides circulating feed
from several mains constitutes a grid system (Fig-
ure 11.10). A grid system should consist of the
following components:
• Primary feeders — Large pipes (mains),
with relatively widespread spacing, that
convey large quantities of water to various
points of the system for local distribution to
the smaller mains

Figure 11.8 Dead-end hydrants receive water from only one direction.
Figure 11.9 A circulating-feed hydrant receives water from more than
one direction.
• Secondary feeders — Network of inter-
mediate-sized pipes that reinforce the grid
within the various loops of the primary
feeder system and aid the concentration
of the required fire flow at any point
• Distributors — Grid arrangement of
smaller mains serving individual fire hy-
drants and blocks of consumers
To ensure sufficient water, two or more pri-
mary feeders should run from the source of supply
to the high-risk and industrial districts of the
community by separate routes. Similarly, second-
ary feeders should be arranged in loops as far as
possible to give two directions of supply to any
point. This practice increases the capacity of the
supply at any given point and ensures that a break
in a feeder main will not completely cut off the
supply.
In residential areas, the recommended size for
fire-hydrant supply mains is at least 6 inches (150
Water Supply 383
Figure 11.10 Grid system of water mains.
mm) in diameter. These should be closely gridded
by 8-inch (200 mm) cross-connecting mains at
intervals of not more than 600 feet (180 m). In the
business and industrial districts, the minimum
recommended size is an 8-inch (200 mm) main with
cross-connecting mains every 600 feet (180 m).
Twelve-inch (300 mm) mains may be used on prin-
cipal streets and in long mains not cross-connected
at frequent intervals.
WATER MAIN VALVES
The function of a valve in a water distribution
system is to provide a means for controlling the
flow of water through the distribution piping. Valves
should be located at frequent intervals in the grid
system so that only small districts are cut off if it is
necessary to stop the flow at specified points (see
Figure 11.10). Valves should be operated at least
once a year to keep them in good condition. The
actual need for valve operation in a water system
384 ESSENTIALS

rarely occurs, sometimes not for many years. Valve

spacing should be such that only a minimum length
of pipe is out of service at one time.
One of the most important factors in a water
supply system is the water department’s ability to
promptly operate the valves during an emergency
or breakdown of equipment. A well-run water util-
ity has records of the locations of all valves. Valves
should be inspected and operated on a regular
basis. If each fire department company is informed
of the locations of valves in the distribution system,
their condition and accessibility can be noted dur- Figure 11.12 An OS&Y valve.
ing fire-hydrant inspections. The water depart-
ment is then informed if any valves need attention.
Valves for water systems are broadly divided
into indicating and nonindicating types. An indi-
cating valve visually shows whether the gate or
valve seat is open, closed, or partially closed. Valves
in private fire protection systems are usually of the
indicating type. Two common indicator valves are
the post indicator valve (PIV) and the outside screw
and yoke (OS&Y) valve. The post indicator valve is
a hollow metal post that is attached to the valve
housing. The valve stem inside this post has the
Figure 11.13 Some valve boxes are
words OPEN and SHUT printed on it so that the belowground.
position of the valve is shown (Figure 11.11). The
OS&Y valve has a yoke on the outside with a
threaded stem that controls the gate’s opening or
Figure 11.14 A water valve key.
closing (Figure 11.12). The
threaded portion of the stem
is out of the yoke when the
valve is open and inside the
yoke when the valve is closed. Control valves in water distri-
bution systems may be either gate
Nonindicating valves in valves or butterfly valves. Both
a water distribution system valves can be of the indicating or
are normally buried or in- nonindicating types. Gate valves
stalled in manholes. If a bur- are usually the nonrising stem type; as the valve
ied valve is properly in- nut is turned by the valve key (wrench), the gate
stalled, the valve can be op- either rises or lowers to control the water flow
erated aboveground through (Figure 11.15). Gate valves should be marked with
a valve box (Figure 11.13). A a number indicating the number of turns neces-
special socket wrench on the sary to completely close the valve. If a valve resists
end of a reach rod operates turning after fewer than the indicated number of
the valve (Figure 11.14). turns, it usually means there is debris or another
obstruction in the valve. Butterfly valves are tight
Figure 11.11 Post indicator valves clearly closing, and they usually have a rubber or a rubber-
show whether the water supply is turned
on or off. composition seat that is bonded to the valve body.

The valve disk rotates 90 degrees from the fully
open to the tight-shut position (Figure 11.16). The
nonindicating butterfly type also requires a valve
key. Its principle of operation provides satisfactory
water control after long periods of inactivity.
The advantages of proper valve installation in
a distribution system are readily apparent. If valves
are installed according to established standards, it
normally will be necessary to close off only one or
perhaps two fire hydrants from service while a
single break is being repaired. The advantage of
proper valve installation is, however, reduced if all
valves are not properly maintained and kept fully
open. High friction loss is caused by valves that are
only partially open. When valves are closed or
partially closed, the condition may not be notice-
able during ordinary domestic flows of water. As a
result, the impairment will not be known until a
fire occurs or until detailed inspections and fire
flow tests are made. A fire department will experi-
ence difficulty in obtaining water in areas where
there are closed or partially closed valves in the
distribution system.
Figure 11.16 A butterfly valve.
Figure 11.15 A gate valve.
WATER PIPES
Water pipe that is used underground is gener-
ally made of cast iron, ductile iron, asbestos ce-
ment, steel, plastic, or concrete. Whenever pipe is
installed, it should be the proper type for the soil
Water Supply 385
conditions and pressures to which it will be sub-
jected. When water mains are installed in unstable
or corrosive soils or in difficult access areas, steel or
reinforced concrete pipe may be used to give the
strength needed. Some locations that may require
extra protection include areas beneath railroad
tracks and highways, areas close to heavy indus-
trial machinery, areas prone to earthquakes, or
areas of rugged terrain.
The internal surface of the pipe, regardless of
the material from which it is made, offers resis-
tance to water flow. Some materials, however,
have considerably less resistance to water flow
than others. Personnel from the engineering divi-
sion of the water department should determine the
type of pipe best suited for the conditions at hand.
The amount of water able to flow through a pipe
and the amount of friction loss created can also be
affected by other factors. Frequently, friction loss
is increased by encrustation of minerals on the
interior surfaces of the pipe. Another problem is
sedimentation that settles out of the water. Both of
these conditions result in a restriction of the pipe
size, increased friction loss, and a proportionate
reduction in the amount of water that can be drawn
from the system.
KINDS OF PRESSURE
[NFPA 1001: 4-5.4(a)]
The term pressure, in connection with fluids,
has a very broad meaning. Technically, pressure is
defined as force per unit area. In fire service terms,
pressure is most commonly thought of as the veloc-
ity of water in a conduit (either pipe or hose) of a
certain size. Pressure in the fire service sense is
measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or
kilopascal (kPa). It is essential to understand the
following terms that identify the kinds of pressure
with which the fire service is concerned:
• Static pressure
• Normal operating pressure
• Residual pressure
• Flow pressure
Static Pressure
If the water is not moving, the pressure exerted
is static (Figure 11.17). Static pressure is stored
386 ESSENTIALS

(Figure 11.19). Flow pressure is the forward veloc-

ity pressure at a discharge opening, either at a
hydrant discharge or a nozzle discharge orifice,
while water is flowing.

Figure 11.17 Static pressure on a hydrant.

Figure 11.18 The residual pressure at a hydrant is measured while
water is being discharged from another hydrant.
potential energy that is available to force water
through pipe, fittings, fire hose, and adapters.
Because true static pressure is rarely found in a
water supply system, there is a different use for the
term in water supply system application. In these
cases, static pressure is defined as the normal
pressure existing on a system before a flow hydrant
is opened.
Normal Operating Pressure
The flow of water through a distribution system
fluctuates during the day and night. Normal oper-
ating pressure is that pressure found in a water
distribution system during periods of normal con-
sumption demand (an average of the total amount
of water used each day during a one-year period). Figure 11.19 A pitot tube in use.

Residual Pressure FIRE HYDRANTS

The term residual pressure represents the
pressure left in a distribution system at a specific
location when a quantity of water is flowing
(Figure 11.18). Residual pressure is that part of
the total available pressure that is not used to
overcome friction or gravity while forcing water
through pipe, fittings, fire hose, and adapters.
Flow Pressure
The forward velocity of a water stream exerts a
pressure that can be read on a pitot tube and gauge
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.14; 3-3.14(a); 4-5.4; 4-5.4(a); 4-5.4(b)]
The two main types of fire hydrants are dry
barrel and wet barrel. The dry-barrel hydrant,
used in climates where freezing weather is ex-
pected, is usually classified as a compression, gate,
or knuckle-joint type that opens either with pres-
sure or against pressure (Figures 11.20 a and b).
The actual valve holding back the water is well
belowground — below the anticipated frost line for
that geographic location. When the hydrant is
 Water Supply 387
to flow some water,
close it, and cap all
discharges except
one. Place a hand
over the discharge
(Figure 11.21). At
this time, a person
should feel a slight
vacuum pulling the
palm toward the
discharge. If this
vacuum is not felt,
notify the water-
works authority
and have them in-
spect the hydrant
because it is prob-
ably plugged. If this
Figure 11.20b A typical dry- situation occurs in
barrel hydrant. cold climates, the
hydrant must be
pumped to prevent
Figure 11.21 Check to see if the hydrant
the water from is draining.
freezing.
Wet-barrel hydrants may only be used in areas
that do not have freezing weather. Wet-barrel
hydrants usually have a compression-type valve at
each outlet, or they may have only one valve in the
bonnet that controls the flow of water to all outlets
Figure 11.20a A dry-barrel hydrant schematic.
(Figures 11.22 a and b). The entire hydrant is
always filled with water to the valves near the
closed, the barrel from the top of the hydrant down
discharges.
to the main valve should be empty. Any water that
remains in a closed, dry-barrel hydrant empties In general, all hydrant bonnets, barrels, and
through a small drain at the bottom of the hydrant footpieces are made of cast iron. The important
near the main valve. This draining feature of a dry- working parts are usually made of bronze, but
barrel hydrant is very important in determining valve facings may be made of rubber, leather, or
hydrant usability. The drain on the dry-barrel composition materials.
hydrant is open when the hydrant is not flowing
The flow of a hydrant varies for several reasons.
water and is closed when the hydrant is operating.
First, and most obviously, the proximity of feeder
If the hydrant is not completely open, the drain is
mains and the size of the mains to which the
left partly open. The resulting flow from the hy-
hydrant is connected have a major impact on the
drant contributes to ground erosion. This explains
amount of flow. Sedimentation and deposits within
the old adage that a hydrant must be either com-
the distribution system may increase the resis-
pletely open or completely shut — there is no
tance to water flow. These problems may occur over
halfway point.
a period of time; therefore, older water systems
The hydrant’s ability to drain may be tested in may experience a decline in the flow available.
the following manner: After allowing the hydrant Firefighters can make better decisions affecting a
388 ESSENTIALS

TABLE 11.1
Hydrant Color Codes

Hydrant
Class Color Flow

Class AA Light Blue 1,500 gpm (5 680 L/min) or greater

Class A Green 1,000–1,499 gpm
(3 785 L/min to 5 675 L/min)
Class B Orange 500–999 gpm
(1 900 L/min to 3 780 L/min)
Class C Red Less than 500 gpm (1 900 L/min)

tion and to place intermediate hydrants where

Figure 11.22b A typical wet-
barrel hydrant.
distances between intersections exceed 350 to 400
feet (105 m to 120 m). This basic rule represents a
minimum requirement and should be regarded
only as a guide for spacing hydrants. Other factors
more pertinent to the particular locale include
types of construction, types of occupancy, conges-
tion, the sizes of water mains, required fire flows,
and pumping capacities.

Fire Hydrant Inspection and Maintenance

In most cities, repair and maintenance of fire
hydrants are the responsibilities of the water de-
partment because this department is in a better
position to do this work than any other agency.
However, in many cases, fire department person-
Figure 11.22a A wet-barrel hydrant schematic.
nel perform water supply testing and hydrant
fire attack if they at least know the relative avail- inspections. Therefore, firefighters should look for
able water flow of different hydrants in the vicin- the following potential problems when checking
ity. To aid them, a system of coloring hydrants to fire hydrants:
indicate a range of water flow was developed by the • Are obstructions, such
NFPA. With this system, hydrants are classified as as sign posts, utility
shown in Table 11.1. Local coloring variations may poles, or fences, too
be found, but simplicity is the main intent of any near the hydrant to
color scheme. make pumper-to-hy-
drant connections?
Location of Fire Hydrants
Although the installation of fire hydrants is • Do the outlets face the
usually performed by water department person- proper direction for
nel, the location, spacing, and distribution of fire pumper-to-hydrant
hydrants should be the responsibility of the fire connections, and is Figure 11.23 Check for
chief or fire marshal. In general, fire hydrants there sufficient clear- sufficient clearance be-
tween the ground and the
should not be spaced more than 300 feet (90 m) ance between the out- hydrant outlet.
apart in high-value districts. A basic rule to follow lets and the ground
is to place one hydrant near each street intersec- for hose connections (Figure 11.23)?
 Water Supply 389
• Is the hydrant damaged because of traffic
accidents?
• Is the hydrant rusting or corroded?
• Are the hydrant caps stuck in place with
paint?
• Is the operating stem easily turned?
• Are there any obstructions (bottles, cans,
rocks) inside the hydrant restricting water
flow?
Using a Pitot Tube
Firefighters who assist in hydrant testing and
inspections will be required to use a pitot tube to Figure 11.25 Steady the pitot tube by holding the left side of the fist
against the discharge outlet. Then, slice the blade into the stream.
measure the flow pressure coming from a hydrant.
There are two methods of holding the pitot tube
properly. The first is to grasp the pitot tube just
behind the blade with the first two fingers and
thumb of the left hand while the right hand holds
the air chamber. The little finger of the left hand
rests upon the hydrant outlet or nozzle to steady
the instrument (Figure 11.24). Another method is
to have the fingers of the left hand split around the
gauge outlet and the left side of the fist placed on
the edge of the hydrant orifice or outlet (Figure
11.25). The blade can then be sliced into the stream
in a counterclockwise direction. The right hand
once again steadies the air chamber. Flow test kits
are also available for conducting hydrant tests. Figure 11.26 A fixed-mount pitot tube.
Using a “fixed-mount” pitot tube reduces the possi-
bility of human error that may occur when using a For more information on testing fire hydrants,
handheld pitot tube (Figure 11.26). Skill Sheet 11- see IFSTA’s Water Supplies for Fire Protec-
1 shows the procedure for using the pitot tube. tion or Fire Inspection and Code Enforce-
ment manuals.

ALTERNATIVE WATER SUPPLIES

Figure 11.24 The little finger is used to help steady the pitot tube.
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.14; 3-3.14(a); 3-3.14(b); 4-5.1(a)]
Fire departments should not limit their study
of water supplies to the piped public-distribution
system. Areas outside the public system should be
studied for available water. Even areas with good
water systems should be surveyed for alternative
supplies in case the water system fails or a fire
occurs that requires more water than the system
can supply. For example, a water supply can be
supplemented by an industry that has its own
private water system. With today’s modern pump-
ers, water can be drawn from many natural sources
390 ESSENTIALS

such as the ocean, lakes, ponds, and rivers (Figure

11.27). Water is also found in farm stock tanks and
swimming pools. A good method of providing water
for fire protection is to construct storage tanks at
strategic locations.

Figure 11.28 A minimum of 24 inches (600 mm) of water should

surround all sides of a strainer.

Figure 11.27 A drafting operation is a good way to provide water for fire
protection.
The process of raising water from a static source
to supply a pumper is known as drafting. Almost
any static source of water can be used if it is
sufficient in quantity and not contaminated to the
point of creating a health hazard. The depth for
drafting water at a source is an important opera-
tional consideration. Silt and debris can render a
source useless by clogging strainers, by seizing
(stopping) or damaging pumps, and by allowing
sand and small rocks to enter attack lines and
clogging fog-stream nozzles. All hard suction lines
should have strainers on them whenever drafting
from a natural source. The suction hose should be
located and supported so the strainer does not rest
on or near the bottom of the source. A depth of 24
inches (600 mm) of water above and below the hard
suction strainer is a good guideline for placing a
strainer, although lesser depths have been used
successfully (Figure 11.28). Special drafting or
floating strainers that can draw water from 1- to 2-
inch (25 mm to 50 mm) levels are available to use
in shallow sources (Figures 11.29 a and b).
Fire department personnel should make every
attempt to identify, mark, and record alternative
water supply sources in pre-incident planning.
Consideration should be given to the effect that
weather has on the amount of water available and
the accesses to water sources.
Figure 11.29a
A floating strainer
(top view).
Figure 11.29b
A floating strainer
(bottom view).
RURAL WATER SUPPLY OPERATIONS
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.14(a); 3-3.14(b)]
Rural water supply operations consist princi-
pally of mobile water supply apparatus (tanker/
tender) shuttles and relay pumping. For either
type of operation to succeed, pre-incident planning
and practice are required. Adequate resources must
be dispatched promptly, and an incident manage-
ment system is necessary for control and coordina-
tion. The following subsections briefly highlight
each of these operations. For more information on
rural water supply operations, see IFSTA Water
Supplies for Fire Protection manual and NFPA
1231, Standard for Water Supplies for Suburban
and Rural Fire Fighting.

Water Shuttling/Shuttles
Water shuttling is the hauling of water from a
supply source to portable tanks from which water
may be drawn to fight a fire (Figure 11.30). Water
shuttling is recommended for distances greater
than ¹₂ mile (0.8 km) or greater than the fire
department’s capability of laying supply hoselines.
It is critical to have an adequate number of water
tankers/tenders for the needed fire flow.
The keys to efficient water shuttles are fast-fill
and fast-dump times. Water supply officers should
be positioned at both the dump and fill sites. As
personnel are available, consideration should be
given to assigning people to traffic control, hydrant
operations, hookups, and tank venting. If possible,
the tanker/tender drivers should remain in their
vehicles during filling/dumping operations.
Figure 11.30 Portable tanks are necessary for efficient shuttle operations.
There are three key components to water-shuttle
operations:
• Attack apparatus at the fire (dump site)
• Fill apparatus at the fill site
• Mobile water supply apparatus (tankers/
tenders) to haul water from the fill site to
the dump site (Figure 11.31)
The dump site is generally located near the
actual fire or incident. The dump site consists of
one or more portable water tanks into which water-
hauling apparatus dump water before returning to
the fill site. Apparatus attacking the fire may draft
directly from the portable tanks, or other appara-
tus may draft from the tanks and supply the attack
apparatus. Low-level intake devices, either com-
mercial or homemade, permit use of most of the
water in the portable reservoir (Figure 11.32).
Water Supply 391
Figure 11.31 Some tankers (tenders) have large pumps and are
equipped similar to a standard engine company. Courtesy of Mike
Wieder.
Figure 11.32 Low-level strainer designed to be used in a portable tank.
When large flows must be maintained, mul-
tiple portable tanks are required. Capacities of
portable tanks range from 1,000 gallons (4 000 L)
upward. When multiple portable tanks are used, a
jet siphon maintains the water level in one tank for
the pumper, while water tankers/tenders dump
into the others. A jet siphon uses a 1¹₂-inch (38 mm)
discharge line connected to the siphon. The siphon
is then attached to a hard sleeve placed between
two tanks (Figures 11.33 a–c). Plain siphons or
commercial tank-connecting devices are also some-
times used for this purpose, although they are not
generally as efficient as jet siphons.
There are several methods of constructing
portable reservoirs. The most common is the
collapsible or folding style that uses a square
metal frame and a synthetic or canvas duck
liner. Another style is a round, synthetic tank
with a floating collar that rises as the tank is
filled, making it self-supporting. These portable
reservoirs should be mounted for easy removal
from the apparatus.
392 ESSENTIALS

Before opening a portable tank, a heavy tarp
should be spread on the ground to help protect the
liner once water is dumped into it (Figure 11.34).
Portable tanks should, if possible, be positioned in
a location that allows easy access from multiple
Figure 11.33a A
commercially built jet
siphon.
Figure 11.33b A homemade jet
siphon.
directions but does not inhibit access of other
apparatus to the fire scene. If more than one water
tanker/tender has arrived, empty one completely,
and send it for another load before emptying the
second one. This procedure sequences the tankers/
tenders better at both the dump and fill sites.
There are four basic methods by which tankers/
tenders unload water:
• Gravity dumping through large (10- or 12-
inch [250 mm or 300 mm]) dump valves
(Figure 11.35)
• Jet dumps that create a venturi effect in-
creasing the flow rate (Figure 11.36)
• Apparatus-mounted pumps that off-load the
water (Figure 11.37)
• Combination of these methods
NFPA 1901, Standard for Automotive Fire Ap-
paratus, requires that apparatus on level ground
be capable of dumping or filling at rates of at least

Figure 11.33c A jet

siphon attached to a
hard sleeve.

Figure 11.35 Dump valves allow for maximum unloading capacity. They
may be located on any side of the apparatus but are most commonly
found on the rear. Courtesy of Mike Wieder.

Figure 11.34 A tarp placed under the portable tank helps protect the
liner. Figure 11.36 Jet dumps increase the flow rate of any dump valve.

Figure 11.37 Stream shapers are used to ensure that all water is
directed toward the portable tank. They are most commonly used when
water is being pumped off the apparatus.
1,000 gpm (4 000 L/min). This rate necessitates
adequate tank venting and openings in tank baffles.
Pumping the water from the tanker/tender needs
to be done by a trained apparatus driver/operator.
Gravity dumps may be activated by a firefighter,
which relieves the driver/operator from exiting the
cab and saves time in the overall process. Most
gravity dumps are activated by a lever near the
outlet.
In order to fill water tankers/tenders quickly,
use the best fill site or hydrant available, large
hoselines, multiple hoselines, and if necessary, a
pumper for an adequate flow rate. In some situa-
tions multiple portable pumps may be necessary.
Both fill sites and dump sites should be arranged so
that a minimum of backing (or maneuvering) of
apparatus is required.
Relay Pumping
Sometimes a water source is close enough to the
fire scene that relay pumping can be used. Some
departments use variations of a combination ten-
der shuttle and relay pumping to minimize conges-
tion of apparatus at the fire scene (Figure 11.38).
There are two important factors to be considered
when contemplating the establishment of a relay
operation:
• The water supply must be capable of main-
taining the desired volume of water re-
quired for the duration of the incident.
Water Supply 393
Figure 11.38 Some tankers have the capability of pumping their load.
• The relay must be established quickly
enough to be worthwhile.
The number of pumpers needed and the dis-
tance between pumpers is determined by several
factors such as volume of water needed, distance
between the water source and the fire scene, hose
size available, amount of hose available, and
pumper capacities. The apparatus with the great-
est pumping capacity should be located at the
water source. Large diameter hose or multiple
hoselines increase the distance and volume that
a relay can supply because of reduced friction
loss. A water supply officer must be appointed to
determine the distance between pumpers and to
coordinate water supply operations.
After considering these factors, a quick calcu-
lation must be made by the water supply officer
in order to determine the distance between pump-
ers. It is important to know the friction loss at
particular flows for the size hose being used.
These figures can be made into a chart and
placed on the pumper for quick reference. The
best way to prepare for relay operations is to plan
them in advance and to practice them during
training exercises.
394 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 11-1 USING A PITOT TUBE

Step 1: Open the petcock on the pitot tube. Make certain

the air chamber is drained; then close the petcock.

NOTE: The petcock is located on the bottom of the pitot

tube. When properly drained and ready, the gauge needle
should read zero.

Step 2: Edge the blade into the stream with the small
opening or point centered in the stream and held away
from the orifice at a distance approximately half the diam-
eter of the orifice. For a 2¹₂-inch (65 mm) hydrant butt, this
distance would be 1¹₄ inches (32 mm).

Step 3: Keep the air chamber above the horizontal plane

passing through the center of the stream. The pitot tube is
now parallel to the outlet opening.

NOTE: This position increases the efficiency of the air

chamber and helps avoid needle fluctuations.

Step 4: Record the velocity pressure reading from the

gauge. If the needle is fluctuating, read and record the
value located between the high and low extremes.