Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1) Nuisance
a) General Rule: A property owner can’s use his or her property in a way that interferes
with a neighbor’s use and enjoyment of their property
b) Defined: A nuisance is a:
i) Substantial interference
(2) Negligent or
c) “Interference”
i) Standard is pretty low, but has to be more than trifle or a mere inconvenience
(b) Americans are reluctant to protect this as a right because it interferes with
development
iv) Jewett Case (pig farm): Protected right to do what a normal homeowner would do
(e.g. open a window)
v) Fountainbleu Case (Miami Beach Hotel): No protected right to light- generally need
an express easement, strict necessity
(1) If you mean to do the thing that causes a problem, then you are doing it
intentionally (so it isn’t an accident)
iv) “Unreasonable”
v) “Negligence”
(1) Look at what is generally accepted for the industry and if conduct fell below
that
(2) Common Law or statute will define what someone is strictly liable for
vii) NOTE: usually cannot come to the Nuisance and then cry foul (may be possible in a
few circumstances where the neighborhood is changing)
f) Determining “Reasonableness”
i) CLEANF Analysis
(4) Activity’s economic importance to the area (level of impact vs. importance to
the community’s economy)
g) Spite Fences
(2) Even if done with malice, if its useful its usually ok.
(3) Strict Liability: don’t have to prove its “intentional and unreasonable” just that
its useless
(1) Economic (e.g. billboard to advertise a hotel, bigger than the hotel next door)
– billboards block light but are economically important
i) Definitions
ii) Nuisance Per Accidens: how you operate creates the nuisance, not that you
operate
iii) Public Nuisance: affects the public/ large number of people; interferes with a public
right
iv) Private Nuisance: affects only a few; interferes with a private right
i) Factors:
ii) If it is a public entity causing the nuisance, it is difficult to fight through the courts
iii) Impact of Zoning Laws: Zoning laws state what is or is not a public nuisance- if
something is allowed by a zoning regulation it cant be a public nuisance
(1) Theory: if a public official has given permission then “the public” is saying it
isn’t a public nuisance.
(2) Practice gives deference to legislatures and city council to identify what is and
is not allowed
iv) However, if its doing substantial injury to a protected public interest (e.g. clean
water) then its probably weakened.-
Pollution
(2) Example: If a stream is polluted and the public uses the water it is a public
nuisance that can be enjoined
-the public interest in keeping its water clean is sufficient to satisfy the public
use requirement
(3) No prescriptive right to pollute can be acquired no matter how long conduct is
tolerated
(2) Most jurisdictions: if damages to you is different in kind than others (not just
degree) and you are uniquely burdened, then you can bring private action for a
public nuisance
(3) Minority of jurisdictions: private individual can act as a “private attorney
general”
(b) Justification-if its bad for the public we should let anyone bring an action
instead of waiting (only is seven states, including Colorado)
k) Private Nuisance
i) Prescription Allowed? Can prescribe a harm for a private nuisance (unlike a public
nuisance)
ii) Individual who brings the suit must have a property interest in the affected
property
iii) Can’t enjoin lawful activity before it happens on the basis that it might be a
nuisance. Must wait to see if it actually is a nuisance before bringing an action
(1) Fact sensitive analysis- depends on the character of the area and the relative
importance of the nuisance. (e.g. even if the nuisance is pre-existing it may be
forced to stop if the area changes)
l) Remedies
i) Goal of nuisance remedies is balancing the right not to be interfered with and the
right to operate the industry that is causing the nuisance
(1) New York Rule: if you find a nuisance, automatically there is an injunction
(a) Because this is such a harsh penalty that automatically applies, it affects
the likelihood of court finding a nuisance
(2) Oregon Rule: Once you find a nuisance, balance the interest to determine what
type of remedy, if any, is warranted.
(a) East St. Johns Shingles- looks at the totality of the circumstances to
determine what is fair. Multi-factor analysis test is:
(i) Does the public value the nuisance more than it hates the nuisance?
(ii) Is the cost of the nuisance less than the cost of fixing the nuisance?
(2) Can result in more litigation (although it probably won’t because plaintiff will
have run out of money)
(1) Occurs when plaintiff wants injunction but nuisance cost is small compared to
benefit of nuisance
(2) Defendant is allowed to buy an easement from the plaintiff to give the actor
right to act
v) Injunction Conditioned on Payment of Permanent Damages
(1) Defendant makes one time payment to compensate plaintiff for past, present,
and future harm
vi) Indemnity (minority rule): plaintiff can get an injunction but has to pay for
relocation costs (Spur Industries/ Sun Valley case)
(1) This is limited to places where the nature of the area has changed
2) Trespass
c) Plaintiff doesn’t have to prove harm only that it happened because trespass is a strict
rule
d) Damage/economic effect does not matter: you have a right to use all of your property
all of the time so a trespass interferes with your possession
i) Size matters- if it big enough to see, feel (Kaboom), taste, touch, or hear, and it is
on your property without your permission, it is a trespass
ii) Cannonball (Like if they shot it and it landed on ur property) is a trespass, invisible
particles are merely a nuisance
f) “New Look” Test (minority rule)- even invisible things can be trespass
ii) Look at the force of the thing-sound waves, molecules, etc..-and not the size
iii) Balancing test: social desirability of the defendant’s conduct with the invasion
on the plaintiff’s land
i) Generally, federal government is immune from nuisance. State, country, and city
immunity varies. In Georgia, state and county are immune but cities aren’t
ii) The question is whether the nuisance rises to the level of a trespass and if so, how
significant of a trespass
iii) A taking does not occur where actions of the government cause damage to the
property, but don’t actually invade the property (like airplane noise that is
vibrating windows)
iv) Three part test if the trespass is against the federal government:
(2) Does the interference destroy or nearly totally destroy the property right?
(3) Is the property right destroyed by planes flying below the FAA standard
(aviator easement) or abdication (can’t go there anymore)?
v) Alevizos- Class action suit against the Minneapolis-St. Paul airport because of noise
The question was whether there was so much interference that it rose to the level
of a taking
- Court was willing to devise a new test based on its view of the purposes of the
taking clause
ii) Don’t have to show that you were harmed-just that your possession of your
property was interrupted
iii) In Nuisance, it is difficult to prove before the activity has commenced. Trespass
has a much lower standard of foreseeability
i) On Exam:
i) Look for local, major industry creating an impact on the community and do a
nuisance analysis, an old-look trespass analysis, and a new-look trespass analysis
(2) Old look: Are planes flying directly overhead below the FAA standard?
(3) New look: Talk about the rattling and vibrations in your home
(iv) Example: Elmer Fudd sells his interest to Daffy Duck, Fudd and
Daffy have vertical privity
-An easement is only necessary to give the parties an interest in the same piece of land at the
same time and thus create the relationship between the parties. It doesn’t matter if the piece
of land in which they have the same interest is not the only piece of land that the covenant
attaches.
Example:
-Neighbors Allen and Bob want to create a covenant that would limit them to single family
homes. To establish privity, Bob gives Allen an easement that allows Allen to pick one rose
from Bob’s rose bushes each year.
-Bob and Allen are now in privity because they have an interest in the same piece of land at
the same time.
-They can now enter into a covenant that will affect both properties.
4) Equitable Servitudes-
a) Like covenants, equitable servitudes are promises affecting the use of land
(2) Equitable Easement Theory: action interferes with your equitable easement so
can get injunctive relief
b) Elements
ii) Notice- Subsequent purchasers are bound only if they had actual or constructive
notice (could be inferred from area and circumstance)
iv) Touch and concern- Can be a required element but not in every case
Exam Tip- Go through Covenants Analysis first because you have to talk about
touch and concern; then do the equitable servitude analysis and discuss the Tulk
case saying that you may not need this
c) Cases
i) Tulk: No privity between parties so the court used its powers in equity to enforce
the equitable servitude
-take away: Even where there is no privity, enforcement in equity may still be an
option
ii) Pratte: This case lowered the bar for what is needed by holding that an equitable
servitude does not need to touch and concern the land to be enforced in equity
(jukebox interest held to be equitably attached to the land) as long as there was
intent and notice
-other examples:
--Conservation Easements: promises that have no benefit in the land, keeps the
easements in gross
--Scenic highways: the government doesn’t buy all the land, just ‘scenic
easements’ to keep development from the view
d) Common Scheme
i) The consistent character of a neighborhood is evidence of a common scheme
iii) Ideal evidence would be a building plan that is recorded (infer that this is the
writing requirement)
iv) More commonly, a combination of recording plat (the plat will reference the
covenant requirement) and uniform appearance
vi) In Georgia, as long as the builder owns one lot in the development they can
unilaterally change the scheme. Everywhere else, everyone must abide by the
scheme
(b) Developer makes an implied promise to the first purchaser to make the
rest of the development in congruence (except in Georgia)
(c) Developer can only bind property he still owns so prior purchasers cannot
be enforced against
(3) Purchasers should look for covenants (expressed promises) first before going
to a common scheme. It is better if the restriction is written down on every
deed.
ii) Contract/Third Party Beneficiary Theory (Snow-Ice Cream at beach case)
(2) Must show that parties who came before you are benefitting from a common
good
(1) Deeds are construed at the time the deed is delivered and there can be no
implied agreements. Any burden on the property must be in the deed
Exam Tip: Know all three theories of Common Scheme and discuss how facts
would play out under each
i) Covenants are remedied at law and require: notice, intent, touch and concern, and
horizontal and vertical privity. On the exam, run through all these elements
ii) When the facts don’t support the existence of a covenant, but to allow the change
to occur would be unjust, look to equity for a solution (i.e., find an equitable
servitudes)
(2) You cant get damages but can get an injunction or specific performance
iii) One approach to delineating between Law (covenants) and equity (equitable
servitudes):
(1) Covenants attach to an interest in land and travels with the interest
(2) Equitable servitudes attach to the land itself and travels with the land
(3) Because of this, an equitable servitude can be enforced against an adverse
possessor
(1) Be flexible
(2) Encourage administrative bodies to make decisions (folks with the expertise)
instead of judges and courts (since courts don’t want to be involved with
aesthetics)
i) Construe away the restriction- Construe language in the deed so that it eliminated
any restriction. “There is no restriction here because…”
(a) Business Judgment Rule (BJR)- is the committee motivated by profit? Are
they neutral?
(b) Homeowners associations are not motivated by profit but are not
disinterested parties (do not meet BJR so no deference)
(2) Hunt v. Delcallo- developer didn’t build driveways. The common scheme
turned the developers obligations into the purchaser’s obligations
iii) Laches/Waiver/Estoppel
(1) Laches: Too much time has passed and the claiming party didn’t do anything
about it- sitting on their rights
(2) Waiver: Some action or statement waives the claiming party’s right to demand
enforcement
(3) Estoppel: Party against whom the claiming party wants to enforce has relied
on the belief that the claiming party wouldn’t enforce against them and done
something inconsistent with enforcement.
(1) Statutes always prevail over common law (unless they are unconstitutional)
(2) Must follow statute- e.g. if only monetary relief is granted, then no injunction
in equitable servitude
(4) Two theories for when the original purpose has been destroyed because of the
changed circumstances
(a) Majority view: original purpose has been destroyed when considered in
light of the entire neighborhood
(b) Minority view: balance the hardship of enforcing the covenant on one
person with the needs of the whole
(6) When the government removes the right to enforce an equitable servitude it is
a TAKING (higher burden of proof)
(8) Note: If you brought about the change in condition you are ESTOPPED from
arguing against the restriction
i) Don’t put the specifics of a development in the covenant; have them written
separately so they may change
iii) Have a Statement of Purpose to hold up against any ‘change of condition’ claims
REVIEW:
1. Allen is a developer who owns a large parcel of land. He deeds Lot 1 to Bob. The
deed restricts Bob to using the land for residential purposes. Bob wants to build a gas
station.
If Allen sells his land to Charlotte, can Charlotte enforce against Bob? A: It depends. If
Allen and Bob intended the restriction to run with the land and all the other elements
for a covenant are satisfied, then yes, Charlotte can enforce
-Allen sells Dave lot 2. The deed does not contain the same restriction re: residential
purposes. Dave wants to build a gas station. Can Bob enforce against Dave? A: Not
under covenant law because there is nothing the deed
-So what can Bob do? If Bob can prove a common scheme that all parcels in the
development were intended to be used for residential use, he gains standing to enforce an
equitable servitude that benefits his property. The common scheme creates an “implied
reciprocal negative restriction”
5) Zoning
a) Generally
ii) The Standard Zoning Enabling Act (model legislation put forth by the federal
government in the 1920’s) requires zoning to be done in accordance with a plan,
but it doesn’t have to be in a written plan.
iii) States have passed Zoning Enabling Acts granting power from the states to the
cities to zone land.
iv) Zoning acts must advance a permissible state objective (health, safety, morals,
welfare). They don’t have to be the best method that advances a permissible
objective (rational relationship test)
v) Georgia
(1) Passes Zoning enabling acts for both cities and counties but theses were
removed from the books as being unnecessary after adopting ‘Home Rule’
provisions that superseded them.
(2) ‘Home Rule’ allows localities to make more specific rules that the state has if
the right to do so was expressly reserved in the original instrument
vi) Procedure
(1) The local government must have written procedures saying how they will go
about zoning and the public must have access to the procedures
(1) Changes (variances) to a plan that affect only a small group of people are
considered administrative and not legislative in nature. This makes it subject
to judicial review.
viii) Zoning v. Covenants- Zoning is about public issues while covenants are about
private issues
b) Historical Approach
i) Static End-State: how most municipalities approached zoning. If the land was
currently used a certain way (farming, industrial, etc..) then that is how it was
zoned.
ii) One Fine Day: designate sections of land as something and wait for it to fill in
c) Constitutionality
i) Police Power- state has the power to regulate for the general welfare (health,
safety, morals, and welfare) that is delegated (through enabling act or home rule)
to municipalities and used to create land use regulations
ii) Euclid- P’s land lost value because it was zoned residential instead of industrial
(1) Court declared zoning constitutional and that decisions would be struck down
only if clearly arbitrary or unreasonable with no substantial connection to
providing for the general health, safety, morals, and welfare.
Example:
-Based on evidence that leaflets being tossed on the ground are a huge part of the problem,
the city council create a “no-leafleting” zone making it illegal to distribute leaflets
--Yes
-Person ticketed under the ordinance sues claiming violation of 1st amendment rights
---Most likely yes-there are other ways to accomplish this goal (e.g. more trash cans) than
limited 1st amendment rights Property – Bross (Spring Semester)
(c) Cannot consider value created by others- only look at value of particular
property
(d) Unique contribution- how does regulation interfere with reasonable
investment- backed expectations
iv) Lucas Test
(1) Deprived of any reasonable economic use of the property AND
(2) Imposition of new restriction that wasn’t there when you bought the property)
AND
(3) Rendered property valueless
(a) Land has to be w/o mkt value, not just w/o value to the owner because
cant use it the way they want to
(b) Transfer of Development Rights (Suitum): can defeat the Lucas analysis
because they will leave the property some value
v) Palazollo Test-
-If you don’t meet Lucas, must meet the Penn Central test which is less conjunctive
than the Lucas test
d) Eminent Domain
i) Federal Government is immune to nuisance suits but can be sued under the 5th
amendment which states it cannot take private land for public use without just
compensation
ii) Example: Planes
(1) Rule of what you owned used to be up to heavens down to center of the Earth
but courts determined “public right to use certain airspace (aviation easement)
based on public right to use navigable water (navigable easement)
(2) Violation of FAA Airspace= taking
iii) Separation of Powers Issues
(1) The court can’s appropriate federal funds by saying the federal government
has to pay for takings
iv) State Takings
(1) Poletown- still good law in most states
(a) Factory would increase jobs and tax base-ruled acceptable
(2) Rule in Michigan Now
(a) Extreme public necessity that affects the common good
(b) Transfer to a private entity that remains accountable to public control
(c) Blighted areas within a comprehensive urban renewal plan
9) Landlord-Tenant Law
a) A lease is both a contract and a conveyance
i) Conveyance is for the right in the property
ii) Contract is for the thing rented
b) At common law, conveyance issues and contract issues operated separately and had
no effect on each other
i) Covenants were independent so failure to perform on one side did not excuse
performance on the other (so T failing to pay rent didn’t mean L could evict and
destruction of property by fire didn’t mean T could stop paying)
ii) Could get around by using determinate or conditional language
c) Modern View is that a lease is a blending of property and contract law
d) NOTE: Statute of Frauds applies (writing must identify parties, describe terms, identify
site)
e) Leases
i) Traditionally, standard form leases favored Landlords (LL) over Tenants (T)
(1) Distraint: LL could levy/ seize T’s property to pay back for rent
(2) Confessions of Judgment: Allows LL to hire an attorney to “represent” T during
an ejection hearing
ii) Legislatures responded by putting in place exemptions limiting the effect of these
clauses
iii) Waiver of exemptions: LL responded by having T waive protection from exemption
laws
-LL’s cant do this anymore
iv) Standard Form Leases
(1) Unconscionable because of unequal bargaining power T had to agree
(especially in cities where there were housing shortages)
(2) Contracts of Adhesion in cases where language was too complex for T to
understand
f) Types of Tenancies
i) Estate for Years- duration is fixed for x number of years, months, etc…
(1) Can be Estate for Years determinable, subject to a condition subsequent, etc.
ii) Estate from Period to Period: An estate which continued for successive periods of
time
(1) Notice is required to terminate the tenancy. If at common law T failed to move
out on a termination date, the LL had the option of holding him for an entire
extra period or treating the T as an occupant at sufferance
(2) Statutes in most situations have set uniform notice requirements that replace
the common law notice requirements
(3) The period of the tenancy is usually set by the regularity of the rent payments
unless expressly set
iii) Estate at Will- Can be terminated by either party.
(1) Many states have enacted statutes that protects T from unscrupulous
practices:
(a) Proprietary Tenancies: the T is part of a co-op and has an ownership
interest in the building
(b) Statutory Tenancies: protect Ts that report housing code violations from
being evicted
(c) Rent Control: prevent LL’s from raising rents or evicting Ts in a rent
controlled building except under specific circumstances
(d) Cause Eviction statutes: limits all evictions to a specific group of causes
iv) Tenancy at Sufferance
(1) An interest that exists when a person stays on land when their legitimate
interest has expired
(2) LL doesn’t owe T anything- upkeep, etc.
(3) No adverse possession unless you “make it your own”
(4) Waiver, laches, or estoppel could apply-make the argument
g) Tenant’s Rights
i) Right of Possession
(1) Landlord is obligated to deliver legal possession to tenant
(2) English Tradition: Right to actual possession because LL is in best position to
ensure previous T has vacated, structure is habitable; also, T should get what
he bargained for
(3) American Tradition: Right to legal possession only (not actual possession). It is
up to T to kick out a holdover tenant. Only valid now in about ½ of American
jurisdictions
(a) 3rd party asserts a title superior to the LL and evicts tenant (paramount
title)
(b) LL actions interferes with T’s possession (destruction of premises,
eviction)
(3) Conduct of other tenants doesn’t usually count unless attributable to LL
because he is either the source or is not enforcing lease restrictions against
other tenants
(a) Read lease covenants as dependent: T’s duty to pay rent and LL’s implied duty to
ensure premises are habitable read as dependent (vs. common law independent
view)
(b) Withhold rent: refuse to pay all or part until defect is cured (court may require rent be
deposited in an escrow account)
(c) Apply rent to cost of repairs: must notify LL. Amount must be reasonable and can’t
be paid from back rent
(i) Duty to vacate: T has to vacate to claim right to terminate lease (must do so
before LL cures defect)
(f) Sue for damages: Measure of damages is difference between FMV of premises as
warranted and FMV of actual premises plus any special damages for discomfort or
annoyance (recover benefit of the bargain)
h) Landlord’s Rights
i) To be paid rent
(1) If LL evicts T for non-payment of rent, can chose from 3 options
(a) Accept surrender and find a new T (release previous T’s obligations)
(b) Re-let on T’s account (old T owes difference between previous rent and
current rent). New lease must be for same terms, market/reasonable rent
(c) Do nothing (sit back and sue). Old T is responsible for entire value of
lease
-Not available in many jurisdictions that require LL to mitigate damages
ii) To have tenant destroy property (reasonable wear and tear)
iii) To have reasonable rule and restrictions observed
i) Types of Eviction
i) Actual Eviction
(1) T locked out by LL and no rent is due
ii) Partial Actual Eviction
(1) T is unable to access a portion of the space lease
(2) If caused by LL then T owes no rent (LL cant apportion his wrong) until T
regains access
(3) If caused by third party, T can decrease his rent by value lost (Fifth Ave. v. Kernochlan
street vault case)
iii) Constructive Eviction
(1) T is not able to inhabit the premises because of something attributable to the LL or a third
party with paramount title
(2) T must actually leave the premises within a reasonable time if he want to stop paying rent
(Dyett v. Pendelton- bawdy house)
iv) Partial Constructive Eviction
(1) Not a recognized eviction because cant stay on property and not pay
(2) T can seek rent damages under the implied warranty of habitability doctrine
(East Haven New York tenement)
j) Eviction Process
i) Summary Proceedings: allows for a speedy trial
ii) Self-Help: where landlord ousts tenant without court involvement
(1) Three Views
(a) No self help (created too great a potential for violence)
(b) Peaceable self-help (majority view): wait until tenant is out and change
the locks
(c) Reasonable force: common law allowed reasonably necessary force
(2) Problem: Potential for violence
(3) Clause In lease allows landlord to exercise self-help and most states enforce
these clauses
k) Tenant’s Defenses to Eviction
i) Eviction was illegal
ii) Eviction was result of LL violation of implied warranty of habitability
iii) Eviction was a result of LL violation of implied covenant of quiet enjoyment
iv) Eviction was Retaliatory
(1) Defined: Eviction as a penalty for certain acts of the T
(2) If T complains to government or landlord, any eviction or increase in rent
within one year is presumed to be in retaliation unless LL presents rebuttal
evidence
(c) Also gives the jury the right to determine rent based on LL violations
l) Destruction of Premises by fire, etc.: Modern view is tenant may terminate lease and stop
paying
m) Illegal Use of the Premises
i) Absent an agreement to the contrary, T can use premises for any purpose that is
not illegal
ii) Lease for an illegal purpose is unenforceable (if LL wasn’t in on it, courts will
consider factors such as how heinous the illegal use is, if all purposes are illegal,
whether act was always illegal, etc.
n) Frustration of Purpose: if events make it impracticable to carry out purpose of lease
and the LL knew of the intended purpose of the lease then it is unenforceable