LAB 2: Operational Amplifiers

Lab Section: AD

Names: Mitchell Dellinger, YasaminZadehgol, Sarah Szewczyk

Date Submitted:

Comments:

Lab Grade:

Team Roles:
Activity Student Name(s)
Prelab/circuit analysis Mitchell, Sarah, Yas
Prelab/other work to answer questions in Mitchell, Sarah, Yas
the prelab
Circuit Construction Mitchell
Data Construction Sarah
Data Analysis Yas
Answers to questions Mitchell, Sarah, Yas
Lab report writing Mitchell, Sarah, Yas
Objectives
•Read IC component specifications and get data from these datasheets for
circuit analysis and design.

•Analyze and measure characteristics of circuits built with opamps (response

to step and sine waves)

•Use the opamp to design a simple circuit.

•Analyze the effect of open fault in manufacturing.

Equipment Used
• Oscilloscope
• Digital Multimeter
• Function generator
• Breadboard
• 2-LM 348 opamps
• 1- 1 KΩ resistor
• 3- 5 KΩ resistor
• 1-19 KΩ capacitor
• 1-10KΩ potentiometer (3 terminal)
• 2 scope probes
• 2 squeeze leads
• 1 function generator cable
Procedure
1) Finish the pre-lab exercises including measuring resistances of the resistors used, and
set them aside for later use
2) Collect all of the materials and equipment needed and assemble in a safe working
environment
3) Construct the circuit in figure 1 of the lab using a 5K W resistor and a power supply of ±
12 V
4) Set the function generator to a square wave amplitude of -10 V to +10 V and period of
100 ms
5) Displaying two cycles of the signal, use the oscilloscope to measure how long it takes for
the output to reach steady state
6) Record the slew rate and compare this value to the slew rate calculated in the pre-lab
7) Change the input signal to a sine wave with a different amplitude ( -3V to + 3V) and
increase the 1 KHz frequency of the input signal until the two graphs do not line up
8) Set the input signal to an amplitude of -100 mV to +100 mV and frequency of 10 Hz
9) Increase this frequency until the voltage gain decreases to ½ of the low-frequency gain
and record this value
10) Construct the circuit in figure 2 of the lab with a power supply of ± 12 V
11) Set the function generator to a square wave amplitude of -100 mV to +100 mV and
frequency of 10 Hz
12) Set R2 to values ranging from 0 W to 10K W with an increment of 1K W ( 1 values) and
record the voltage gain at these settings
13) Build the circuit in section 6.4 of the pre-lab with a power supply of ± 12 V to see if the
circuit performs as planned
14) Build the circuit in figure 2, excluding R3 and setting R2 to 8K W, and repeat step 10
above
15) Measure and record the voltage gain for this specified scenario
Data

7.2: Op Amp Voltage Follower Circuit

3. Time interval to reach steady state: 30.8 us(low to high)

51.0 us(high to low)

Figure 1: 7.2.3 Measuring Low to High Transition time = 30.8 us Figure 2: 7.2.3 Measure High to Low Transition time = 51 us

7. Frequency distortion
Occurs at 25 kHz

Figure 3: 7.2.8 24kHz frequency distortion Figure 4: 7.2.8 25kHz frequency distortion
9. Low frequency gain

The low frequency (10 Hz) gain is 1.

At 1.4429 MHz, the gain becomes ½.

Figure 5: 7.2.9 Gain of 1/2 (half the low frequency gain =1)

7.3: Performance of the circuit in Figure 2

Table 1: Changing resistance value of circuit two

R2(ohm) Vout (V) Vin (V) Gain=Vout/Vin (unitless)

0 1.12 0.1 11.2
1000 1 0.1 10
2000 0.68 0.1 6.8
3000 0.48 0.1 4.8
4000 0.248 0.1 2.48
5000 0.0144 0.1 0.144
6000 -0.228 0.1 -2.28
7000 -0.448 0.1 -4.48
8000 -0.66 0.1 -6.6
9000 -0.89 0.1 -8.9
9400 -0.95 0.1 -9.5
Figure 6: 7.2.8 24kHz frequency distortion Figure 7: 7.2.8 25kHz frequency distortion (probes in images set to 10X)

7.4: Performance of our own gain circuit

Table 2: Performance of our gain circuit with changing R2 value
R2 (ohm) Vout (V) Vin (V) Gain=Vout/Vin (unitless)
0 -3.84 0.1 -38.4
1000 -3.12 0.1 -31.2
2000 -2.28 0.1 -22.8
3000 -1.64 0.1 -16.4
4000 -0.96 0.1 -9.6
5000 -0.12 0.1 -1.2
6000 0.76 0.1 7.6
7000 1.48 0.1 14.8
8000 2.24 0.1 22.4
9000 2.96 0.1 29.6
9300 3.24 0.1 32.4

Figure 8: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 2Kohm resistance (CH2 probe set to 10X)
Figure 9: 7.4.3 Performance of gain circuit with 5 Kohm Figure 10: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 8 kohm resistance
(probes (CH2) in images set to 10X)
7.5: Open fault effect measurement
Overall voltage gain measured:-34.4

Figure 11: Performance of open fault effect circuit 2 (probes in image set to 10X)
8. Data Analysis, Calculations, and Results
8.1: Opamp voltage follower circuit
1.The calculated time to reach the steady state from the prelab (section 6.2 #2) was 40 us.

Measured in lab was a time interval of 30.8 us for the signal to go from low to high.

The percent error is |obseverved-calculatedcalculated×100%|

=30.8-4040×100%= 23%

The time interval for the signal to go from high to low was measured to be 51.0 us.

The percent error of this value:

51-4040×100%= 21.5%

Both these time intervals fall within the typical range. Also, if we take the two values and
average them, we see that we get a value of 40.4 us, which gives a percent error of 1%.

Figure 12: 7.2.3 Measuring Low to High Transition time = 30.8 us Figure 13: 7.2.3 Measure High to Low Transition time = 51 us

2. The difference in the slew rate has to do with the transistor types and electron and hole
mobility constants of the transistors inside of the op amp. When the voltage goes from negative
to positive, the transistor that turns on is an n-type transistor, meaning that electrons are the
dominant carrier type. Since electrons are dominant, the rate of change is correlated with the
electron mobility constant, which is around 1400 cm2/ (V·s) for silicon. When the voltage goes
from positive to negative, the transistor that turns on is a p-type transistor, meaning that holes are
the dominant carrier type. Since holes are dominant, the rate of change is correlated with the
hole mobility constant, which is around 450 cm2 V-1s-1 in Si. Also, the capacitance in the
transistor has to do with the mobility constants. One thing we do not know from the schematic is
the width of the channel.

The slew rates do differ for our two scenarios. The typical value of the slew rate is: 0.5V/1us.
In lab, we observed a rate of: .5V/.77us for the op amp to go from low to high.

The rate to go from high to low was: .5V/1.5 us.

As stated earlier, it appears that the transition from low to high is controlled by an n-type
transistor and the transition from high to low is controlled by a p-type transistor.

3. In the pre-lab, the calculated frequency at which the output will distort due to slew rate
limitations is: 26525.82 Hz = 26 kHz. This is the theoretical frequency at which distortion will
occur.

The frequency measured in lab at which the output distorted was 25 kHz. This is anacceptable
value, as the device is not ideal, it is real, and the theoretical distortion is calculated assuming
ideal conditions.

These values give a percent error of:

25000-26525.8225000×100%=5.75%

Figure 14: 7.2.8 24kHz frequency distortion Figure 15: 7.2.8 25kHz frequency distortion

We can see in these images that the divergence starts to become more apparent at 25 kHz, but is
slightly observable at 24 kHz. We decided that at 25 kHz it became much more apparent that the
signals were diverging than at 24 kHz, and calculated our data thusly.

4. The frequency effect on the voltage gain for small signal inputs from the prelab was around
1MHz.
The measured frequency effect from lab on the voltage gain was observed to be 1.4429 MHz.

Figure 16: 7.2.9 Gain of 1/2 (half the low frequency gain =1)
This gives a percent error of:

1-1.44291×100%=44%
Again, the calculations were performed assuming that components were ideal, so error is likely
due to the assumptions made in the pre-lab. Also, when using the cursor to find the amplitude of
the output signal, it can be tricky to measure with high levels of accuracy.

8.2: Performance of circuit in figure 2

Looking at the pre-lab graph and the graph of the collected data, we see that there is a high level
of convergence between the two. The difference in the two graphs is likely due to the fact that
when creating this graph during the pre-lab, the assumption is that the components are ideal.
During lab, we were using real components, thus the data will not perform exactly as predicted
theoretically. In the graph for the pre-lab, we accounted for the fact that we used a 20 Kohm
resistor, instead of a 19Kohm resistor. This is reflected in the equation for the plot of the pre-lab
material.

At this point in the lab, we forgot to turn the scope probes back to 1X from 10X, so the CH1
wave appears ten times its true size in the print out (It should be 200mV).
Figure 17: 7.3.5 Performance of circuit 2 with 8Kohm resistor Figure 18: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 2Kohm resistance

8.3: Performance of your own gain circuit

Figure 19: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 2Kohm resistance

Figure 20: 7.4.3 Performance of gain circuit with 5 Kohm Figure 21: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 8 kohm resistance

8.4: Open fault comparison

The voltage gain value in the fault-free circuit with a resistance of 8KΩ is:
-6.6. We calculated that the gain should be -6.0 in the pre-lab. This gives us a percent difference
of 10%, due to the components being non-ideal.
 The gain in the faulty circuit is -34.4. We calculated in the pre-lab that this circuit condition
would give a gain of -32.0. The percent difference is: 7.5%.

The gain in fault-free circuit and the gain in the faulty circuit are not the same.

Below are the waveforms:

Figure 22: 7.3.5 Performance of circuit 2 with 8Kohm resistor Figure 23: Performance of open fault effect circuit 2

In the two waveforms, it is apparent that the fault would be detected because the amplitude of the
output in the first image does not match that of the second image, although the two inputs are
exactly the same. In this case, the fault would be detected.
Conclusion

One thing that occurred during lab that we must be more careful about in future labs is that we
set our probes to 10X in order to take some data when the measured values were very small, and
we forgot to set the probes back to 1X when we were taking more data. In some of the print
outs, this is apparent because the scale of the y-axis (voltage) is bigger by a factor of 10. This
error could have been avoided by taking more care while performing the experiments.

We found that our op-amp performed as we had predicted in the pre-lab, within reasonable limits
of error.
Print Outs

Figure 24: 7.2.3 Measuring Low to High Transition time = 30.8 us Figure 25: 7.2.3 Measure High to Low Transition time = 51 us

Figure 26: 7.2.8 24kHz frequency distortion Figure 27: 7.2.8 25kHz frequency distortion

Figure 28: 7.2.9 Gain of 1/2 (half the low frequency gain =1) Figure 29: 7.3.5: Performance of circuit 2 with 2Kohm Resistor
Figure 30: 7.3.5 Performance of circuit 2 with 8Kohm resistor Figure 31: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 2Kohm resistance

Figure 32: 7.4.3 Performance of gain circuit with 5 Kohm Figure 33: 7.4.3 Performance of our gain circuit with 8 kohm resistance

Figure 34: Performance of open fault effect circuit 2