BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

Rolling
Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of
the workpiece is reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls.

• For steels, the desired operating temperature for rolling is

around 2200oF (1200oC)

• The furnace heating process is called soaking process, and

the location is called soaking pit

• Bloom -- A square cross section 6 in. x 6 in. or larger

• Billet -- A square cross section 1.5 in. x 1.5 in.
• Slab – A rectangular cross section 10 in. x 1.5 in. (THK.)

• Draft – The amount of reduction between original and

final thickness

• Reduction – the fraction of the original thickness (percent

cold work)
to − tf
r=
to

Where r = reduction (percent cold work)

to = starting thickness; tf = final thickness
• Spreading – increasing width of workpiece

[It appears to be more significant when low width-to-

thickness ratios and low coefficients of friction]

towoLo =tfwfLf

Where wo and wf are the before and after work widths

Lo and Lf are the before and after work lengths

• Neutral slip – the velocity of workpiece is equal to roller

speed

• Forward slip – the exiting speed is greater than the roller

speed

vf − vr
s=
vr

Where S =forward slip

Vf = exiting velocity of workpiece
Vr = roller speed
• Calculation of flow stress: coefficient of friction
multiplies compression force of rollers

• Two-high rolling: allows the direction of rolling to be

reversed or nonreversed

• Three-high rolling: vertical rolling in one fixed direction

• Four-high rolling: two small rollers are driven by two big
backing rollers

• Cluster rolling: small rollers are driven by a group of

backing rollers

• Tandem rolling: a series of pair rollers

• Other rolling operations: ring rolling, tread rolling, gear

rolling, and roll piercing

Forging

• Open-die forging: the worpiece is compressed between

two flat dies, thus allowing the metal to flow without
constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die surfaces

ho
ε = ln
h

Where ho = starting height of work

h = the height at some intermediate point in process

F = Yf A

Where F = force exerted on the workpiece

Yf = flow stress corresponding to the strain ε
A = cross-sectional area of workpiece
• Impression-die forging (closed-die forging): the die
surfaces contain a shape or impression that is imparted to
the worpiece during compression, thus contstraining
metal flow to a significant degree.

F = Kf Yf A

Where Kf = forging shape factor

• Flashless forging (precision forging process): the work

is completely constrained within the die and no excessive
flash is produced

Coining is a special application (there is little flow of

metal in coining)

• Other forging operations: upsetting and heading, swaging

and radial forging, roll forging, orbital forging, hobbing,
and isothermal and hot-die forging

Extrusion

Extrusion is a compression forming process in which the

workpiece is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

• Direct extrusion (forward extrusion): metal is flowing in

the same direction of the ram (work as toothpaste)
• Indirect extrusion (reverse extrusion): metal is flowing
against the ram

Hot versus cold extrusion

Hot extrusion works above metal’s recrystallization
temperature

Continuous versus discrete processing

Cold and warm extrusion are often used to produce
discrete parts

Other extrusion processes: impact extrusion and hydrostatic

extrusion

Wire and bar drawing

Wire sizes are limited to 0.001 inch

Bar sizes are related to large-diameter bar and rod stock

Tube drawing
Fixed mandrel and floating mandrel

Drawing preparation: drawing equipment, draw

dies/stands (entry, approach angle, bearing surface, and
back relief), metal preparation (annealing, cleaning, and
pointing)

Defects in extruded parts

Centerburst, piping, and surface cracking