Reactance and Impedance: Study Unit

Study Unit
Reactance and
Impedance
By
Joseph A. Risse, P.E.
and
J. A. Sam Wilson, M.S., CET

iii
Preview
Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are the basic building blocks of all electronic systems. And,
in spite of the fact that there has been a radical change in amplifying devices—and a complete
revision of the appearance of systems—these basic building blocks that make up all circuits are
the same.
In this study unit, you’ll learn how resistors, capacitors, and inductors behave when connected to
form basic circuits.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Explain how resistors, capacitors, and inductors work in DC (direct current) circuits
· Calculate time relationships in circuits
· Determine the reactance of a capacitor or inductor in an AC (alternating current) circuit
· Calculate the impedance of series RLC (resistive-inductive-capacitive) circuits
· Find the phase angle between the voltage and current in parallel RC (resistive-capacitive),
RL (resistive-inductive), and series RLC circuits
· Work with j operators

v
Contents
BACKGROUND INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Some Important Definitions
Physical Laws and Effects
Using the Scientific Calculator
Review of Radian Measurement
Speed, Velocity, Vector, and Phasor
DETERMINING INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE . . . . . . . . 15

Omega (Angular Velocity)
Working with Sine Waves
Instantaneous Sine Wave Voltage and Current
How a Capacitor Opposes a Change of Voltage
Capacitors with a Vacuum Dielectric
Resistance and Capacitance in DC Circuits
Resistance and Inductance in DC Circuits
Universal Time-Constant Curves
Delay-Before-Start Circuits
Delay-Before-Stop Circuits
Capacitive Reactance
How Does an Inductor Oppose a Change in Current?
Faraday’s Law
Contact Protection
Counter Voltage
An Inductor Static Curve for High Inductance
Inductive Reactance
DETERMINING IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGLES FOR RC,

RL, AND RLC CIRCUITS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Review of Right Triangle Calculations
Reactances and Impedances as Phasors
Working with Math Symbols
The j Operator
Coordinates
Power in AC Circuits
A Special Series RLC Circuit
POWER CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
EXAMINATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1
Reactance and Impedance
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Some Important Definitions
Before beginning our work with reactance and capacitance, let’s re-
view some important terms. Some of these definitions are based upon
models that technicians find useful for analyzing AC circuits.
Components that do not generate a voltage or current are called passive

components. A resistor is an example of a passive component. Compo-
nents that do generate a voltage or current are called active components.
A transistor in an amplifier circuit is called an active component, be-
cause it can be considered to be the source of the signal voltage in the
equivalent circuit of the amplifier.
In this study unit, you’ll learn about three very important passive
components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors. You’ll also learn
how resistors, capacitors, and inductors are used together in various
DC and AC circuit combinations. Figure 1 shows a circuit that contains
these passive components. In order to understand the type of circuit
shown in Figure 1, you must first understand how each of the compo-
nents performs in both DC and AC circuits. You must also learn how
simple two-component combinations perform in circuits.
FIGURE 1—A basic

“coupling circuit” is used DC VOLTAGE
to deliver a signal from one
amplifier to another. This type
of circuit is made with C2
resistors, capacitors, and an AC AC
inductor. SIGNAL SIGNAL
INPUT OUTPUT
R1
R2
C1
DC VOLTAGE
2 Reactance and Impedance
Let’s take a brief look at resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
· A resistor is a component that opposes the flow of current in both

DC and AC circuits. Resistors radiate energy in the form of heat,
but they don’t store energy. For the purposes of this study unit, the
resistors that will be considered are the carbon-composition type.
The value of resistance in these resistors is the same in both AC
and DC circuits. This is an important point, because some resistors,
such as wire-wound types, can have inductance. Resistors that
have inductance don’t act like carbon-composition resistors in
some AC circuits.
· A capacitor is a component that opposes any change in voltage

across its terminals in both AC and DC circuits. Capacitors store
energy in their dielectric region.
· An inductor is a component that opposes any change of current

through it in both AC and DC circuits. Inductors store energy in
a surrounding magnetic field.
Physical Laws and Effects

There are some basic physical laws and effects that affect the behavior
of resistors, capacitors, and inductors in circuits.
· Every time there’s a current flow, there’s always a magnetic field

around that current. The strength of the magnetic field depends
directly upon the strength of the current. So, if you have an AC
current in which the strength of the current is always changing,
there’s a continuous change of magnetic field strength around
the current.
· The direction of the magnetic field around a current is directly

dependent upon the direction of electron current. This important
law is illustrated in Figure 2.
· Every time a conductor moves through a magnetic field, there’s

always a voltage induced across the conductor.
· Every time an alternating current flows through a resistor, there

are two effects that always occur
1. There’s always heat generated.
2. There’s always an AC voltage drop across the resistor.

Reactance and Impedance 3
FIGURE 2—When electron

current flows through a
wire, there’s always a
surrounding magnetic field. ELECTRON
When the thumb points in FLOW
the direction of electron
current, the fingers circle
in the direction of the
magnetic field. Observe FLUX LINES
that the field lines are less
concentrated and there-
fore the field is weaker,
as the distance from the
current is increased.
· A resistor does not cause the voltage and current in an AC circuit

to get out of phase. Figure 3 shows the waveforms for voltage and
current in a resistor circuit. Observe that the waveforms for voltage
and current both go through their maximum values and through
zero at the same instant of time. When this occurs, the AC voltage
and current are “in phase.” Although we’re considering AC current
here, keep in mind that heat and voltage drop also occur in resistive
DC circuits.
FIGURE 3—The sine wave

voltage and current in a
resistive circuit are in
phase. They go through E
maximum points, E, and V V R
zero values point, F, at
the same time, and they
E THE CIRCUIT
take the same amount of I
time for one cycle. T is the
F t
time for one cycle. Time 0
always gets later as you
move along the time line,
t. So, F is later than E.
Every time there’s a flow of AC current through a capacitor, there are

always two effects that must be considered:
· There’s always a shift in phase between the voltage and current.

The voltage and current get out of step, and the current leads the
voltage (Figure 4). If there’s no other passive component in the
capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90° as shown
in Figure 4.

voltage in a capacitive
circuit is 90° out of phase.
y
Note that the current
(point x) goes through V V C
maximum one-fourth
cycle (90°) before the
voltage maximum at point x I THE CIRCUIT
y. T is the time for one
t
cycle, which is also called 0
m n
the period of the wave.
· There’s always an AC voltage drop across the capacitor when an

AC current is flowing through it.
Every time there’s a flow of AC current through an inductor, there are

always two effects that must be considered:
· There’s always a shift in phase between the voltage and current.

In this case, the current lags behind the voltage (Figure 5). As
shown in this illustration, if there’s no other passive component in
the inductive circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by 90°.

voltage and current in
an inductive circuit are 90°
m
out of phase. Notice that
the current peak at n V V L
comes later than the
voltage peak at m.
n THE CIRCUIT
t
0
· There’s always an AC voltage drop across the inductor when

there’s an AC current flowing through it.
Using the Scientific Calculator

In this lesson, you’ll find that certain problems can be solved more
quickly and accurately using a scientific calculator. These calculators
are widely available at a modest price.
Throughout this study unit, you’ll find instructions for solving certain
problems using a scientific calculator. The symbols in brackets ([ ])
represent actual keys on the calculator. The symbols on your calculator
might be slightly different.
Let’s try the following example problem.
What is the square root of 42 + 32?
Keystrokes Display Description
[4] [X2] [=] 16 Begin by taking

the square of 4.
[+] [3] [X2] [=] 25 Then, add the

square of 3.
[ ] [=] 5 Finally, take the

square root of the sum
(25). Answer: 5.
Review of Radian Measurement

Sometime in elementary school, students are usually introduced to the
fact that a circle can be divided into 360 even segments called degrees.
By that measurement, a 90° angle (also called a right angle) makes up
one-fourth of a circle. There are four 90-degree quarters in a circle. The
concept of degree measurement is reviewed in Figure 6A.
The measurement of angles in degrees is a popular idea with people

who don’t work in technology. For people working in technology, the
favored angle measurement is the radian. Figure 6B shows the basic
concept of measurement using radians. If you take the radius of a circle
and lay it along the circumference as shown, then draw lines from the
center of the circle to each end of that radius located on the circumfer-
ence, the angle between the two lines is one radian. One definition for
a radian (sometimes called a rad) is the angle included within an arc
equal to the radius of the circle.
90°
II I
60°
ONE RADIAN
45°
30° RADIUS r r
r
RADIUS
180° 0° ONE RADIAN
(360°)
(B)
III IV
270°
(A)
π/2 RADIANS
2 RADIANS 1 RADIAN
3 RADIANS
0
π RADIANS
3π/2 RADIANS
(C)
FIGURE 6—(A) A circle can be divided into 360 equal parts called degrees. In scientific work, the degrees
are counted counterclockwise. You can see that 0° and 360° are the same point. Lines are also drawn at
30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 180°, and 270°. The Roman numerals I, II, III, and IV mark the four quadrants. (B) A radian
can be an angle or part of a circle. It takes a little over p radians (3.14 radians) to make a half circle (180°).
(C) This illustration demonstrates that there are p radians in 180°.
If you continue to divide the half circle into radian arcs, you’ll find
that you can draw a little more than three radian arcs in a half circle,
which is 180 degrees. In fact, you can draw 3.14 radian (p radians) arcs
in a half circle (Figure 6C).
In equation form, p radians = 180°.

There are two basic equations you can use to convert from known
radians to unknown degrees and to convert from known degrees to
unknown radians:
Equation 1: To get the number of degrees when you know the number
of radians, multiply the number of radians ´ 180 degrees/(p radians):
180 degrees
number of radians ´ = number of degrees
p radians
where 180 degrees/p radians is the multiplier.
Equation 2: To get the number of radians when you know the number
of degrees, multiply the number of degrees by (p radians)/(180 degrees):
p radians
number of degrees ´ = number of radians
180 degrees
where (p radians/180 degrees) is also called the multiplier.
How do you remember which equation to use? Remember that p

radians = 180°, and 180° = p radians. Therefore, both of the multipliers
in the above equations have a value of 1.0 as shown here:
180 ° p radian
=1 Also, =1
p radians 180 °
A scientific calculator can be used to easily find the number of degrees

in a known number of radians. It can also be used to find the number
of radians when the number of degrees are known.
To find the number of degrees there are in 5 radians using the scien-
tific calculator, perform the following operations.
[5] [´] [180] [=] 900 Multiply 5 ´ 180.
[¸] [2nd] [p] [=] 286.4788976 Divide by p.

Answer: 286.5.
To find the number of radians there are in 200 degrees using the
scientific calculator, perform the following operations.
[200] [´] [2nd][p] [=] 628.318307 Multiply 200 ´ p.
[¸] [180] [=] 3.49068504 Divide by 180 degrees.

Answer: 3.49.
Remember that in both of the equations above, you’re only using a

multiplier that has a value of 1, and multiplying by 1 doesn’t change
the values in the equation. What you are changing is the units of angle
measurement.
To summarize, when you use the equations to convert units, always

use the multiplier that has the unit you don’t want in the denominator
and the unit you do want in the numerator.
Here are a few sample problems for converting radians to degrees and
degrees to radians. Use the keystrokes on your scientific calculator as
described above. The answers shown at the end of this study unit
show how to use strikeouts to obtain the correct answers.
Questions 1–10: Convert the values in the following problems.
1. How many degrees are there in one radian? In this problem, you
have the number of radians (which you don’t want). What you
want to find is the number of degrees.
180 degrees
1 radian ´ = 57.3 degrees
p radians
2. How many radians are there in 90°? In this problem you have the
number of degrees (which you don’t want). What you want to find
is the number of radians.
p radians p
90 degrees ´ = radians
180 degrees 2
3. 270° = ______ radians

p radians
270 degrees ´ = 4.71 radians
180 degrees
4. 1° = ______ radians
p radians
1 degree ´ = 0.0175
180 degrees
5. 30° = ______ radians

p radians p
30 degrees ´ = radians
180 degrees 6
6. 45° = ______ radians

p radians 45 1 p
45 degrees ´ = p = p = radians
180 degrees 180 4 4
7. p/4 radians = ______ degrees

p 180 degrees 180
radians ´ = degrees = 45 degrees
4 p radians 4
8. 3p radians = ______ degrees

180 degrees
3 p radians ´ = 540 degrees
p radians
p
9. radians = ______ degrees
3
p 180 degrees 180
radians ´ = degrees = 60 degrees
3 p radians 3
3
10. radians = _____ degrees
4
3 180 degrees
radians ´ = 42.97 degrees
4 p radians
Speed, Velocity, Vector, and Phasor

As a technician, you need to be able to distinguish between the terms
speed, velocity, vector, and phasor.
Speed is the rate of change of distance. Speed doesn’t have a direction.

For example, you might say, “The speed of the motorcycle is 40 miles
per hour.”
Velocity is a vector value. Velocity has magnitude and direction. So, you
might say, “The velocity of the motorcycle is 40 miles per hour north.”
Technically, it would not be correct to say, “The velocity of the motor-
cycle is 40 miles per hour.”
A vector is a quantity that illustrates both magnitude and direction. A

phasor is an arrow that represents magnitude and an angle from a
given starting position. The drawings in Figure 7 illustrate two ways
to draw a phasor.
FIGURE 7—Two ways to

represent a phasor
rotated to 45 degrees.
Both phasors are in 6 UNITS
identical positions. 6 UNITS
AT 45°
USUALLY
WRITTEN AS 45°
6 45°
6 UNITS
AT π/4 RADIANS 6 UNITS
SOMETIMES
WRITTEN AS
6 π/4
π/4 RADIANS
Our interest at this time is in the use of phasors to describe what’s

happening in AC circuits. A good example is the rotating phasor in
Figure 8. If you project the tip of the arrow in Figure 8 along a line
that represents degrees of rotation, and if the phasor is turning at a
constant rate, the projection will be a sine wave.
FIGURE 8—A sine wave

results when the position of a
phasor that’s rotating at a
constant rate is projected.
The fact that a sine wave is generated by a rotating phasor is a very

important point. A sine wave voltage or current can be represented by a
rotating phasor. The voltage or current at any instant can be represented
by the position of the phasor at that instant. The amplitude of the sine
wave is represented by the length of the phasor. The frequency of the
sine wave is determined by the angular velocity of the phasor.
These facts allow us to describe voltages and current by phasors, and

that will greatly simplify the descriptions of circuit behavior.
Earlier in this lesson, we showed that a current in an inductive circuit

lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This was illustrated in Figure 5
and is repeated in Figure 9 along with the phasors that represent the
same situation. When you look at the phasor representation, imagine
the two phasors are like the hands of a clock that are welded together.
FIGURE 9—As the two

phasors rotate counter-
clockwise, two sine
waves are generated.
The current sine wave
is 90 degrees behind
the voltage sine wave.
When the two phasors turn counterclockwise, they turn together. The
standard direction of phasor rotation in the United States is counterclockwise.
In some other countries, phasor rotation is clockwise.
In Figure 9, the phasors have been stopped in a position where the in-
stantaneous voltage is zero volts, and the current at that instant is at its
most negative value.
As you work with rotating phasors, you’ll become more familiar

with the advantages of this method of representing sine waves. As an
example, using sine waveforms, try to draw two sine waves that start
when one is at +23 degrees and the other is at –37 degrees. You can see
how easy this is to do with phasors by referring to Figure 10.
FIGURE 10—The method of

representing sine waves
that’s depicted in this
figure is easier than trying
to draw sine waveforms at
specific phase angles.
+23
37
Power Check 1
At the end of each section in Reactance and Impedance, you’ll be asked to pause and check
your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Power Check.” Writing the
answers to these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please complete
Power Check 1 now.
1. True or False? The statement, “The current leads the voltage” is the same as, “The voltage
lags the current.”
2. Where is the energy stored in an inductor?
____________________________________________________________________________
3. List three passive components.
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Which component opposes any change in current through it?
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Components that generate a voltage or can be considered to be the source of a signal

voltage are called _______ components.
6. Which type of resistor may sometimes act like an inductor?
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Where is the energy stored in a capacitor?
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Name two effects of an AC current flowing through a resistor.
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Which component opposes any change in voltage across its terminals?
____________________________________________________________________________
10. True or False? The AC sine wave voltage across an inductor lags behind the current.
11. Speed at a given direction is called _______.

12. The favored angle measurement for people working in technology is _______.
(Continued)
Power Check 1
Questions 13–18: Make the following conversions.
13. 90° = _______ radians

14. 270° = _______ radians
15. 120° = _______ radians

p
16. radians = _______ degrees
6
17. 2p radians = _______ degrees
18. One radian = _______ degrees

Check your answers with those on page 67.
DETERMINING INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE

REACTANCE
Omega (Angular Velocity)

You’ve seen how a sine wave can be considered to be generated by a
rotating phasor. The faster the phasor rotates, the higher the frequency
being generated. In other words, the frequency of the sine wave is the
direct result of the angular velocity of the rotating phasor. Therefore,
we need to review some of the basics of angular velocity and the direct
relationship of angular velocity to frequency.
The angular velocity, represented by omega, w, of a phasor is equal to

one revolution divided by the time, t, that it takes the phasor to make
one revolution:
one revolution
w=
time (t) for one revolution
For example, if it takes 0.5 seconds to make one complete revolution

(360°), the angular velocity is
degrees 360 °
w= = = 720 ° per second
time 0.5 sec
As mentioned before, one revolution can be written a number of dif-

ferent ways. The one we’re interested in at this time is the use of 2p
radians to represent one complete revolution.
one revolution 2 p (radians)

w= =
time (t) t (seconds)
Two of the most important equations you’ll use in electronics are
1
t (time for one cycle ) =
f (frequency)
1
also, f ( frequency) =
t (time for one cycle)
where t is the time of one cycle of waveform in seconds, and the

frequency, f, is the frequency of the waveform in hertz. This equation
is sometimes written as t = 1/f. Therefore, the latter equation for w can
be written by substituting 1/f for t:
2p 2p 1
w= = =2p ¸
t 1 f f
Remember that whenever you divide by a fraction, you must invert

the fraction and multiply. So, the above equation becomes
1 f
w= 2 p ¸ =2 p ´ = 2 p f
f 1
Working with Sine Waves

In your work with AC circuits, you’ll be working with some very
important equations dealing with omega (w). Remember that omega
represents the angular velocity of a rotating phasor. Remember also
that the angular velocity of the rotating phasor determines the frequency
of the projected sine wave.
You may wonder why the sine wave is such an important part of elec-
tronics technology. One reason is that every periodic wave, no matter
how complicated its waveform, can be constructed with a combination
of sine waves. Therefore, you can think of a sine wave as being a perfect
waveform. Figure 11 gives two examples.
FIGURE 11—Sine waves Z

can be used to construct
non-sinusoidal waveforms. A C
C
Figure 11A depicts a square
A
wave; Figure 11B a triangular
wave. Both are constructed
by combining several sine B B
waves.
SQUARE WAVE E
E
C D
D
C C
E C
E
F
F
SQUARE WAVE
SQUARE WAVE TRIANGULAR WAVE

(A) (B)
Another reason that the sine wave is important in electronics technology

is that any periodic wave that’s not a sine wave contains harmonic
frequencies. Harmonic frequencies are multiples of the basic waveform.
Look again at Figure 11. Observe that the non-sinusoidal waveforms

are actually constructed of a basic sine wave and multiple frequencies
of that sine wave.
This information isn’t trivial—it has many applications in theory and

in troubleshooting electronic equipment. We’ll momentarily step aside
from our discussion of omega to show how this important information
can be used in troubleshooting. (We’ll return to study these applications
in greater detail later.)
Figure 12A shows a test being performed on an amplifier. A pure sine

wave is introduced into an amplifier, and the output waveform is
tested with an instrument called a distortion analyzer. Assuming the
amplifier isn’t distorting the waveform, the distortion analyzer will
show that the output waveform is a pure sine wave. More impor-
tantly, the distortion analyzer will show how much distortion the
amplifier is causing.
Figure 12B shows a second way that sine waves are used in electronics
technology. The example shows a square wave introduced to the input
of an amplifier. The output should be a square wave that contains all
of the sine waves that make up the square wave. Observe that the
amplifier cannot pass all sine wave frequencies. (An oscilloscope can
be used to display waveforms of voltages.)
FIGURE 12—In Figure 12A,

a test is being performed
on an amplifier. Figure 12B AMPLIFIER
shows a second way that SINE
DISTORTION
sine waves are helpful in WAVE
ANALYZER
troubleshooting an INPUT
amplifier. Here the
technician can observe (A)
which, if any, frequencies
are not passed through INPUT OUTPUT
the amplifier. WAVEFORM WAVEFORM
(B)
If you refer back to Figure 11, you’ll see that a square wave is made
up of a basic sine wave and multiple frequencies (called harmonic
frequencies) of that basic wave. If the amplifier can pass all of those
harmonic frequencies, the output will be a square wave. If the output
isn’t a square wave, it means the amplifier isn’t passing the necessary
harmonic frequencies. As a technician, you’ll know how to interpret
the shapes of the output waveforms.
Instantaneous Sine Wave Voltage and Current

There are applications where you need to know the voltage value of
a sine wave voltage waveform at any instant of time, or the current
value of a sine wave current waveform at any instant of time. A basic
equation for instantaneous voltage is
v = VM sin q
where v is the voltage at the instant the rotating phasor (that created
the sine wave voltage) reaches a chosen angle q.
A similar equation for instantaneous current is
i = IM sin q
where i is the current at the instant the rotating phasor (that created
the sine wave current) reaches the chosen angle q.
Let’s take a look at a problem using the two formulas just given.
Assume that a sine wave voltage having a peak voltage of 100 volts
and a frequency of 60 hertz has been stopped at 45 degrees. What is
the value of voltage at that instant?
In Figure 13A, the sine wave is shown on a degree axis. In Figure 13B,
the sine wave is shown on a radian axis. To get a better understanding
of the point we’re interested in, refer to Figure 14. The illustration
shows that a sine wave can be drawn on a degree or radian axis. Both
sine waves are produced by a rotating phasor having a length equal
to the maximum voltage or current. When the phasor has rotated 45
degrees, we want to stop it and determine the value of voltage at that
point. In our example, we’re going to determine that “instantaneous
voltage” three different ways.
First, looking at the problem graphically, you can see that the phasor
that produces the sine wave is drawn to scale at an angle of 45 degrees.
The vertical distance from the end of the phasor is measured on the
same scale—that is, the voltage at the instant the phasor is stopped at
an angle of 45 degrees.

a sine wave is shown on a v = Vm Sin 45° = 100 Sin 45° = (100)(0.707)
= 70.7V
degree axis. In Figure 13B,
a sine wave is shown on a
radian axis.
v = Vm Sin θ
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

45° (A)
POINT OF INTEREST = 2π/8 radians
Sin 2π/8 rad

= 0.707+
v = Vm Sin ωt + θ
0° π/2 π 3π/2 2π
(B)
FIGURE 14—This illustration

shows that sine waves can
be drawn on either a degree
or a radian axis. In both 100V v
cases, the sine waves are
generated by a rotating 0 90 180 270 360 DEGREES
phasor.
100V v
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π RADIANS
Secondly, to solve the problem using the equation above, you see that:
v = VM sin q = 100 sin 45
where VM = 100 volts, and q is 45 degrees.
Use the degree axis to represent the sine wave with a rotating phasor.
In Figure 15, the phasor has been drawn for the 45 degree point.

shows that instantaneous
MAXIMUM
voltage can be
VOLTAGE 70. 7V
determined graphically
7+ INCHES
10 INCHES VOLTAGE AT THE
when drawn to scale. INSTANT THE ROTATING
PHASER HAS REACHED
45 DEGREES
45°
O DEGREE AXIS
To solve the above equation using a scientific calculator, perform the

following operations.
[100] [´] [45] [SIN] [=] 70.71067812 Multiply 100 volts ´

the sine of 45 degrees.
Answer: 70.7 volts.
Before we go on to the third method of solving the sample problem,

we’ll introduce two equations for finding the instantaneous value of
sine wave voltage or current at any instant of time.
The first equation is
v = VM sin (wt ± q)
where v is the instantaneous value of voltage at any time t, VM is the

maximum, or peak, voltage of the sine wave, w is the angular velocity
multiplied by the instant of time of interest (multiplying w by t gives
you an angle in radians), and q is the phase angle in radians (if it exists).
The second equation is
i = IM sin (wt ± q)
where i is the instantaneous value of current at any time t, IM is the

maximum (or, peak) current of the sine wave, w is the angular velocity
multiplied by the instant of time of interest (again, this multiplication
produces an angle in radians), and q is the phase angle in radians
(if it exists).
There’s a tradition of writing the phase angle in degrees and the angu-
lar velocity in radians. When that’s done, you must change the phase
angle (when it exists) into radians before it can be combined with wt.
Note: When you’re using a scientific calculator to find the sine (or any
other trig function such as cosine or tangent) in radians, you must
switch the calculator to the radians mode of operation. To do so, push
the degree key or follow the instructions that came with your scientific
calculator.
Assuming you’ve changed to radian mode, let’s find the sine of 0.5
radians on the scientific calculator.
[.5] [sin] [=] 0.4794255386 Find the sine of

0.5 radians.
Answer: 0.479.
Note: A very common mistake made by students is to forget to switch

the calculator back to the degree mode when working problems in-
volving angles in degrees. In some scientific calculators, some other
calculations won’t work properly unless the calculator is in the degree
mode.
We’ll now continue with the third solution for the problem using
radian measurement.
Given: VM = 100 volts (maximum)
frequency = 60 hertz
Since the solution that involves radian measurement requires the time
t, our first step is to find the time t it takes to get to the point where the
phasor has turned 45 degrees. We know that 45 degrees is one-eighth
of a complete revolution:
45 degrees 1
one-eighth revolution = =
360 degrees 8
The time for one complete cycle t can be obtained from the frequency
(60 hertz).
1 1
t= = = 0.016666667
f 60
For 1 8 cycle, the time is
1 1 0.016666667
time for cycle = ´ t = = 0.002083333 sec
8 8 8
You know that angular velocity w = 2pf. So,
angular velocity = w = 2pf = 2 ´ 3.14 ´ 60 = 377
Substituting the determined time (0.002083333) for t in the equation

for instantaneous voltage, 377 for w, and 100 volts for VM gives
v = 100 ´ [sin (377 ´ 0.002083333)] = 100 ´ sin 0.785416541 = 70.7 volts
Remember when using the scientific calculator that the sine of an

angle expressed in radians must be determined in the RAD mode.
The numbers are carried out in the solution to an unusual number of
places to avoid an error when rounding off values.
How a Capacitor Opposes a Change of Voltage

Remember that a capacitor opposes any change in voltage across its
terminals. That concept is easier to understand by connecting a DC
voltage across a capacitor as shown in Figure 16A.
The capacitor, in this case, has a plastic dielectric. The switch is used
to deliver the DC voltage across the capacitor. The capacitor can’t
immediately assume the same voltage as the battery. You can see that
from the charging curve in Figure 16B.
Scientists use the following model to explain what’s happening. They

tell us that dielectric materials have many tiny electric dipoles in them,
and each dipole has a positive and a negative end (Figure 16C). Notice
that the switch is open.
Before a voltage is applied across the plates of the capacitor, the dipoles
are arranged in a random direction as shown in Figure 16C. When the
voltage is applied, current begins to flow into one plate of the capacitor
and out of the other (Figure 16D). That flow produces an electric field
between the plates. The greater the difference in the number of electrons
between one plate and another, the stronger the electric field.
The dipoles begin to align themselves with the electric field. Note that
the negative sides of the dipole turn toward the positive charge on one
plate. At the same time, the positive sides of the dipoles turn toward
the negative capacitor plate—that is, the plate with the greatest number
of electrons. This action is based upon the very basic principle that
opposite charges attract.
SWITCH VOLTAGE
ACROSS
CHARGING
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
V
SWITCH
TIME INCREASE
CLOSED
(A) (B)
SWITCH (OPEN) SWITCH (CLOSED)

ELECTRONS
DIPOLES ARE DIPOLES –

IN RANDOM ARE
V V DIPOLE
DIRECTIONS ALIGNED +
(C) (D)
FIGURE 16—The behavior of a capacitor can be observed by connecting a DC voltage as shown in 16A. In
Figure 16B, you can see if takes time for the charging capacitor to reach the same voltage level as the DC
source. In Figure 16C, you can see that the dipoles are in random directions. In Figure 16D, you can see
that the dipoles are now aligned in the same direction opposite to the current flow.
The dipoles don’t turn freely. In fact, there’s opposition within the
dielectric that opposes the realignment of the dipoles. However, the
electric field eventually succeeds in turning all of the dipoles.
If there was no opposition to the dipoles turning, they would turn

very rapidly, and the field would turn all of the dipoles at nearly the
same time.
Now you can understand the reason for the curve of the charging
capacitor. The full voltage across the capacitor can only occur when
all of the dipoles are aligned. The current must flow into the plates
to create the field between the plates, and the alignment of dipoles
follows the establishment of the field. The time it takes the capacitor
to reach the full voltage is very short, and it’s difficult to observe with
the best electronic equipment. However, the voltage across the capaci-
tor doesn’t reach the maximum value instantly. It’s correct to say that
the capacitor opposes the change in voltage across its terminals.
If you remove the applied voltage across the capacitor—by opening

the switch in Figure 16A—the capacitor doesn’t immediately lose its
charge. The reason for that is that some of the dipoles remain aligned
for a short period of time. That explains why the discharge curve
doesn’t immediately drop to zero volts.
Again, it’s proper to say that the capacitor opposes the change in
voltage across its terminals.
Capacitors with a Vacuum Dielectric

The discussion on capacitors assumes there’s a mylar (or other non-
conductor) between the plates. However, there are capacitors made
with a vacuum dielectric. That means there are no dipoles in the
dielectric. So, how is the capacitor charged? Refer again to Figure 16D.
There are actually two mechanisms that must be explained regarding

a charging capacitor. You’ve just studied the charging of a capacitor
when there’s a dielectric present.
As shown in the illustration, the voltage across the capacitor doesn’t

instantly reach the applied voltage. As electrons move into the negative
plate, a negative charge accumulates in the plate. As that charge be-
comes more and more negative, it opposes the flow of electrons into
the plate. That explains why the voltage across a capacitor with a
vacuum dielectric can’t immediately reach the applied voltage.
In a capacitor when a mylar (or other type of dielectric) is charged, the

same thing happens as with the vacuum dielectric. However, the effect
of the negative accumulation of negative charges in a capacitor with a
vacuum dielectric is small compared to the effect of dipole action in a
capacitor with a dielectric material.
Therefore, when explaining the action of a capacitor, the usual proce-

dure is to disregard the effect of accumulating negative charges on the
negative plate and the depletion of electrons on the positive plate. The
amount of energy stored in a capacitor with a vacuum dielectric is small
compared to capacitors with a dielectric material. However, the voltage
at which the capacitor breakdowns is higher in a vacuum dielectric.
Resistance and Capacitance in DC Circuits

You’ll recall that capacitors are components that oppose any change in
voltage across their terminals, and that inductors are components that
oppose any change in current through them. This opposing feature of
both inductors and capacitors is the heart of many circuits. The circuits
in Figure 17 define the time-constant relationship for RC (resistive-
capacitive) and RL (resistive-inductive) circuits having a DC-applied
voltage. Let’s take a look at these circuit actions and time-constant
equations.

the capacitor can be
charged and discharged
by this circuit. When E
ELECTRON CHARGING CURRENT

switch S is in position 2, R1
the capacitor charges
through R1. The solid arrow 2
shows the charge path. 1 3
When the switch is in
position 3, the capacitor
S
discharges through R2.
R2
The broken-line arrow C
shows the discharge path.
Figure 17B represents an
RL circuit where current
flow through the inductor,
L, increases when the RC CIRCUIT
switch is in position 2 and
(A)
decreases when S is
moved to position 3. R1
R2
L
3
2
1 S
RL CIRCUIT
(B)
The time constant t for the charging capacitor is given by the formula
t = RC
in which t stands for time in seconds required for the capacitor to

charge to 63% of applied voltage, R stands for resistance, in ohms,
through which the capacitor charges, C stands for capacitance, in
farads.
FIGURE 18—These are
PERCENT OF MAXIMUM VOLTAGE OR CURRENT

universal time-constant 100
paths that show the charging
of the capacitor along the 90
CURVE A
time-constant curve marked 80
A. The capacitor discharge 70
curve is marked B. These
curves also represent the 60
behavior of current in an RL 50
circuit.
40
CURVE B
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME CONSTANTS
When the capacitor is charging, the voltage across it changes, as

shown by curve A in Figure 18.
When the switch in Figure 17A is moved to position 3, the capacitor

discharges through R2. (The broken-line arrow shows the path of the
discharge current.) The time constant, which is the time required for the
voltage across the capacitor to decay to 37% of its original charged
value, is calculated using the same formula.
When the capacitor is discharging (switch position 3), the voltage

across it decreases along the curve marked B in Figure 18.
Resistance and Inductance in DC Circuits

The subject of inductance will be taken up in greater detail later in this
lesson. It’s introduced here for comparison with capacitors in DC circuits.
When switch S is moved to position 2 in the circuit of Figure 17B, the
current through the inductor L starts to increase. However, since the
inductor opposes this increase in current, it doesn’t reach its maximum
value instantly. As a matter of fact, it doesn’t reach 63% of its maximum

value until one time constant has elapsed. The time-constant formula is
L
t=
R
in which t stands for time constant, in seconds, L stands for inductance,

in henries, R stands for resistance, in ohms.
The increasing current follows curve A of Figure 18. If switch S in

Figure 17B is moved to position 3 after the current reaches its maxi-
mum value, the collapsing magnetic field around the inductor will
induce a voltage that tries to keep the current flowing. This induced
current will flow through R2 and the short circuit through switch S.
The current through the inductor and R2 will decay along curve B in
Figure 18.
Universal Time-Constant Curves

The increase and decrease of voltage across a capacitor in an RC circuit
follow the graphs of Figure 18. Likewise, the increase and decrease of
current in an RL circuit follow the same graphs.
An important feature of these curves is the fact that they don’t go beyond
the fifth time-constant points. The reason is that a capacitor is consid-
ered to be fully charged (or fully discharged) after five time constants.
Similarly, the current through an inductor reaches its maximum (or
minimum) value after five time constants.
The following example problem shows you how to use the curves to
determine voltage at a specific time constant.
Example: Assume that a series RC circuit is connected across a 50-volt

DC circuit. How much voltage will appear across the capacitor at a
time equal to two time constants?
Solution: The universal time-constant curve (Figure 18) shows that, at

two time constants, the voltage across the capacitor is about 86% of the
applied voltage:
86% of 50 V = 0.86 ´ 50 = 43 V
Answer: 43 V
Delay-Before-Start Circuits
Many circuits used in industrial electronic systems operate on the
time-constant principle. The RC or RL circuit is actually part of a more
complex electronic circuit, but the basic principles just studied apply
to all such systems. Figure 19 gives two examples with the electronic
portion of the system shown in block-diagram form.
+ 15V + 15V
R S
Vin CIRCUIT IS Vout Vin CIRCUIT IS Vout

ENERGIZED DE ENERGIZED
WHEN Vin = 10V WHEN Vin = 5V
C S R C
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
15V ENERGIZED 15V DE ENERGIZED
10V 10V
Vin Vin
5V 5V
TIME TIME
S S
OPENED OPENED
(A) (B)
FIGURE 19—This figure shows block diagrams and graphs showing how time-constant circuits are used to
delay before start (Figure 19A) and before stop (Figure 19B).
The circuit in Figure 19A is designed to begin its operation at some

time after the switch S is opened. In other words, you have to open
the switch, and then wait for a certain period of time before the circuit
begins to operate.
Note that the capacitor is short-circuited by the switch in the closed

position. At such time, the input to the circuit is grounded; so
Vin = 0 V. The circuit can’t operate because it requires an input
voltage of 10 V.
The instant the switch is opened, capacitor C begins to charge through

resistor R. When the voltage across the capacitor reaches 10 V, the
circuit begins to operate and to produce an output signal at Vout.
The graph in Figure 19A shows that the charging capacitor causes the
input voltage (Vin) to increase along a curved path. Since Vin must be
10 (or 662 %) of the applied voltage to operate the circuit, it follows
15 3
that the delay between opening the switch and obtaining an output is
only slightly longer than one time constant. (You’ll recall that one time
constant occurs at 63% of the applied voltage.)
Delay-Before-Stop Circuits
In the circuit of Figure 19B, the input to the circuit must drop to 5 V or
less before the circuit is de-energized and the output is cut off. When
the switch is opened, C discharges through R, and the voltage across R
decreases as the capacitor discharges.
This concept is easy to understand. When the switch is closed, the

voltage across both R and C, which is Vin, is equal to 15 V. When the
switch opens, C discharges through R, and Vin decreases as shown in
the graph in Figure 19B. If C discharges completely, Vin will go to 0 V.
The circuit in Figure 19B is actually used in a power supply protection

circuit. The switch opens when the supply voltage drops. If the drop
is only momentary, the supply isn’t shut off by Vout. However, if the
voltage Vin reaches 5 V before the supply voltage gets back to normal
and closes the switch, the Vout will shut the supply off.
Note that Vin must drop to 515 of the supply voltage before the voltage
at Vout is cut off. (This value 515 is 331 3% of the supply, which is only
slightly less than the voltage at one time constant, or 37% of V.)
For practical purposes, both circuits in Figure 19 can be considered as

operating one time constant after the switch is opened.
Capacitive Reactance
If you apply an AC voltage across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor
will continually oppose the changing voltage, and will also continually
oppose the current. This opposition to the changing current is called
the capacitive reactance. By definition, capacitive reactance is the oppo-
sition of a capacitor to an AC current. It’s represented by the symbol XC.
Capacitive reactance is measured in ohms.
How much reactance (opposition) does a capacitor offer to the flow

of AC current? In a lab experiment, it can be shown that higher capaci-
tance values offer lower opposition to AC current flow. It can also be
shown that currents at higher frequencies encounter less opposition to
AC current flow.
To summarize, the capacitive reactance decreases when the capacitance

increases. Capacitive reactance also decreases when the frequency
increases. Capacitive reactance and capacitance are said to be inversely
related. The equation for capacitive reactance is given here:
1 1
Xc = =
2 pfC wC
where XC is the capacitive reactance in ohms, f is the applied AC

frequency in hertz, w is the angular velocity, and equal to 2pf is the
angular velocity, and C is the capacitance in farads.
That equation is sometimes given as:
0.159
Xc =
fC
because 1 2p is equal to 0.159.
Remember that the values of the frequency must be stated in hertz,

and the capacitance must be stated in farads. That’s accomplished by
writing higher or lower values with scientific notation (such as milli
and mega) or by a power of ten. For example, capacitance values are
usually given in microfarads—abbreviated mF or 10 –6 farads.
A scientific calculator doesn’t have words like micro, pico, kilo, and
mega, so those notations must be converted to powers of 10 in order to
be used in calculations. A scientific calculator makes the conversion
easy.
The following powers of 10 represent the engineering notations:
106 = mega
103 = kilo
10–3 = milli
10–6 = micro
10–9 = nano
10–12 = pico
Let’s take a look at the following conversion examples:
2,100 nanofarads = 2100 ´ 10–9 farads
33 picofarads = 33 ´ 10–12 farads
123 milliamperes = 123 ´ 10–3 amperes
270 kilohms = 270 ´ 103 ohms
Writing prefixes in powers of 10 (as in the above examples) is called

engineering notation.
When a number is written as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied

by a power of 10, it’s called scientific notation. Let’s take a look at some
examples of scientific notation:
0.000746 = 7.46 ´ 10–4
37,100,000 = 3.71 ´ 107
Some scientific calculators can convert numbers directly to engineering

or scientific notation. Follow these examples on your scientific
calculator for conversion to engineering notation.
Converting a number to engineering notation. Observe that the letters

ENG may be located above a key. That means it can be accessed by the
2nd key. Enter the number, then push the [2nd] key, and then [ENG].
Next, push the [=] key. Let’s try doing the following conversions to
engineering notation using the scientific calculator:
0.000746 farads = 746 ´ 10–6 farads = 746 microfarads
[0.000746] 0.000746 Enter the number to be

converted.
[2nd] [ENG] [=] 746–06 Convert to engineering

notation.
Answer: 746 ´ 10–6 farads
= 746 microfarads.
Let’s try another example.

5,280 meters = 5.28 ´ 103 meters = 5.28 kilometers
[5280] 5280 Enter the number to be

converted.
[2nd] [ENG] [=] 5.2803 Convert to engineering

notation.
Answer: 5.28 ´ 103 meters
= 5.28 kilometers.
You should observe that each answer in the examples above has a
power of ten that’s given for a prefix. For example: 300 ´ 106 hertz
means 300 megahertz.
Converting a number to scientific notation using a scientific calculator.

You should locate the letters SCI on your calculator. If the letters SCI
are above a key, a number can be converted to scientific notation by
pushing [2nd] and then [SCI].
Let’s try doing the following conversion to scientific notation using a

scientific calculator:
300,000,000 = 3 ´ 108
[300000000] 300000000 Enter the number to be

converted.
[2nd] [SCI] = 308 Convert to scientific

notation. Answer: 3 ´ 108.
Remember, every number written with scientific notation is a number

between 1 and 10 times a power of 10; units like micro, pico, kilo, and
mega are called engineering notation.
For example, in engineering notation an equation is expressed as:
0.000027 farads = 27 ´ 10–6 farads = 27 microfarads
In scientific notation, the same equation is expressed as:
0.000027 farads = 2.7 ´ 10–5 farads

The scientific calculator will process either the numerical value or the
powers of ten in calculations. If there’s room, the calculations may
revert to numerical values. If you prefer to have the answer expressed
in powers of 10, push the [EE] key.
Use your scientific calculator to perform the following typical operation:
Find the value of 27 megohms ´ 10 picofarads.
[27] [EE] [06] 2706 Express as a power of

ten.
[´] 27000000 Pressing the [´] key

shows you’re preparing
to multiply.
[10] [EE] [±] [12] 10–12 Express 10 picofarads as

a power of ten by press-
ing [10] [EE], then [±] (to
input the minus sign).
[=] 0.00027 Complete the operation.

Answer: R ´ C = 0.00027.
When a number is expressed in scientific notation, it’s some number

between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10.
To convert 0.00027 to scientific notation, enter that number and push

[2nd] [SCI] = 2.7 ´ 10–4.
Remember that when using your scientific calculator to solve problems

using the EE key, always use the ± key for negative exponents. When
the exponent is positive, the + is understood, so don’t try to obtain it
with the ± key.
Let’s solve the following problem.
Example: A 1.5-microfarad capacitor is connected across a 0.5-

kilohertz sine wave generator (Figure 20A). What is the value of
capacitive reactance in ohms?
FIGURE 20—Use Figure

20A to determine the
value of capacitive
reactance. Use Figure
20B to find the current f = 0.5 kHz
flow in the circuit.
C = 1.5 µf
C
1
XC =
2πfC
(A)
Solution: Write the equation.
1
XC =
2pfC
Convert microfarads to farads and kilohertz to hertz:
f = 0.5 kilohertz = 0.5 ´ 103 hertz
C = 1.5 microfarads = 1.5 ´ 10–6 farads
Then, using standard calculation:
1 1
Xc = = = 212 .2 ohms
2 pfC (2 ) ´ (p) ´ (0. 5 ´ 10 3 ) ´ (1. 5 ´ 10 –6 )
Or, solve for the denominator (2pfC) on the scientific calculator:
Keystroke Display Description
[2] [´] [p] [´] 6.283185307 Multiply 2 ´ p. Enter [´]

to prepare for the next
step.
[.5] [EE] [03] [´] 3141.592654 Continue the operation

by multiplying by 0.503.
Enter [´] to prepare for
the next step.
[1.5] [EE] [± 06] [=] 0.004712389 Find the reciprocal.
[1/x] [=] 212.2065908 Answer: The capacitive

reactance is 212.2 ohms.
By way of review, (0.004712389) is the denominator of the answer.

The [1/x] key puts it in the numerator, so XC = 212.2 ohms.
The illustration in Figure 20A has been redrawn in Figure 20B with the
generator voltage added. The capacitive reactance of the capacitor has
also been added. We’ll now determine the current in the circuit.
You’ll note that the RMS value of voltage—also called the “effective
value of voltage”—is given in the illustration. The RMS value is
indicated by the use of V for RMS voltage.
Note: The maximum voltage (also called the peak voltage) is usually
indicated with VM, and an instantaneous value of voltage is shown
with a lowercase letter v.
The equation for current is given here:
V 10
I= = = 0.047 amps = 47 milliamps
X C 212 .2
How Does an Inductor Oppose a Change in Current?

Earlier in this study unit, it was explained that motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field causes a voltage to be generated
across the conductor. There are many applications of this law.
An interesting example is the attempt to generate electricity by using

the space shuttle to sweep a long cable through the earth’s magnetic
field. In accordance with the rule about a voltage generated by a con-
ductor and magnetic field having motion between them, that cable
moving through the earth’s magnetic field will produce a voltage
across it. An early attempt failed because the cable broke, but the
theory is still correct.
Remember, any time there’s relative motion between a conductor and

a magnetic field, there’s always a voltage induced across the conductor.
The amount of voltage depends upon how fast the magnetic field and
conductor move in relation to each other, and the number of conductors
being moved.
The term relative motion needs further explanation. It doesn’t matter if

the magnetic field is stationary and the conductor is moving through
the field, or the conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is moving
through the conductor.
In fact, the conductor and the magnetic field can both be moving as
long as they’re moving with relation to each other.
Faraday’s Law
The law relating a voltage generated by relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field is called Faraday’s law. Faraday’s law
is written as an equation this way:
df
v = -N
dt
where v is the induced voltage at any instant of time, N is the number

of conductors involved, and f is the symbol used for magnetic flux.
The expression df/dt means “the rate of change of flux (relative to the
conductor) with respect to time.” In other words, it means the relative
speed between the conductor and the magnetic flux (f).
The negative sign in the equation is very important. The negative sign
is due to Lenz’ law, which states that whenever there’s an induced volt-
age, it will produce a current that opposes any change in current
through the conductor.
Lenz’ law can be demonstrated using the circuit in Figure 21A. A

current is presumed to be flowing through the coil, and the switch is
closed.
In Figure 21B, the switch is opened in an attempt to stop the current

flow. That produces an induced voltage. According to Lenz’ law, that
induced voltage will oppose the change and try to keep the current
flowing.
SPARK
(A)
(B)
FIGURE 21—Lenz’ law can be demonstrated using the circuits in Figure 21A. When the switch is open, a high
counter voltage appears at the switch terminals in Figure 21B.
If there are enough turns of wire in the inductor, the induced voltage
will be so high that it will force an arc across the switch contacts.
In a short time, the arc of current across the switch contacts will stop
because the induced voltage will decrease as the coil current eventu-
ally stops flowing. (It eventually stops flowing because the switch is
open.)
The arc across the switch contacts is very important because it will
eventually destroy the switch contacts with repeated operation of the switch!
Contact Protection
There are a number of ways to stop the destruction of the switch
contacts.
Figure 22 shows one way to protect the switch contacts. A capacitor is

connected across the switch. When the counter voltage from the coil
appears across the capacitor, it stores the high energy and then slowly
leaks it back into the circuit.
FIGURE 22—The capacitor

suppresses the arc
discharge across the
switch terminals.
V L
You’ll remember that a capacitor is a component that opposes any

change in voltage across its terminals. So, you can say the capacitor
opposes the change in voltage across its terminals and prevents arcing
across the switch contacts.
Counter Voltage
The induced voltage in a coil was, in earlier times, called a counter
EMF. (EMF is a term that was used earlier in this study unit to mean
voltage.) In the latest use of terms according to the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), counter EMF is now called counter
voltage. You’ll sometimes see it referred to as kickback voltage.
You’ll still see EMF and counter EMF used in some texts because they’re
good models for circuit descriptions. However, as an up-to-date tech-
nician, you should remember that the term EMF isn’t considered to be
a correct representation of voltage.
Consider the coil in Figure 23. Assume the current through the coil is
increasing. The magnetic field around each turn of the coil increases
and cuts through nearby turns. That induces a counter voltage in those
adjacent turns. So, the counter voltages induced in all turns combine to
produce a total counter voltage in the coil.
FIGURE 23—A magnetic

field shown with broken
arrows cuts across
adjacent turns.
The inductance of a coil is directly related to the number of turns of a

coil. In other words, if you increase the number of turns, you increase
the coil inductance; when you decrease the number of turns, you
decrease the induction.
Also, the rate of change of magnetic flux around a current-carrying

wire is directly related to the rate of change of current. From this
information, you can understand the second mathematical version
of Faraday’s and Lenz’ laws, which is
di
v = -N
dt
where v is the counter voltage that is induced at any instant of time t,

N is the number of turns of wire in the inductor, and di/dt is the rate
of change of current through the inductor.
When the current through a coil is decreasing, the magnetic field around
each turn is collapsing. That induces voltage in adjacent windings with
an opposite polarity compared with the induced voltage with an
increasing current.
Think of it this way: an inductor opposes any change in current

through the coil.
The overall result is that the inductor causes an opposition to alternating

current flowing in a coil. That opposition is called inductive reactance.
An Inductor Static Curve for High Inductance

Earlier in this study unit, a basic circuit is shown with a battery, switch
and inductor (Figure 24). The circuit illustrates what happens when an
inductor is first charged.
FIGURE 24—The time

constant for a large
inductor is different from
the time constant for a
small inductor.
TIME
CONSTANT
CURVE
I
UNPREDICTABLE
TIME
The charging curve in Figure 24 is different from the one shown previ-
ously because a high inductance is presumed. The static curve for high
inductance isn’t as easily drawn as for a capacitor. When the switch in
Figure 24 is first closed, there’s a rapid change in current through the
inductor.
Remember that the counter voltage is directly dependent upon the

rate of change of current and the number of turns in the coil. Since the
current changes rapidly when the switch is first closed, there’s a high
counter voltage generated. That high counter voltage can be very
destructive to the switch.
Look closely at the curve in Figure 24 and observe that the initial section
of the curve is blank. That gap in the curve eliminates the first part of
the curve because the amount of counter voltage—and its effect on the
current—can’t be predicted unless more is known about the inductance
of the coil.
If we move past that uncertainty, the curve in Figure 24 is a time-

constant-charging curve. That means the current can’t rise to its final
value in an instant.
As with the circuit having only a capacitor, the time it takes for the
current to reach its maximum value is very short, with the static
condition illustrated by the circuit having a low value of inductance.
Inductive Reactance
When an AC current flows through an inductor, it opposes the increase
in current on one half cycle, and opposes the decrease in current on
the next half cycle. Again, the conductor opposes any change in current.
The overall result is that the inductor opposes the flow of AC current.
That opposition is called inductive reactance, and it’s represented by the
variable XL.
The amount of opposition to a sine wave current is given by the

equation
XL = 2pfL
where f is the frequency of the current, L is the inductance of the

inductor, and XL is the opposition the coil offers to the flow of AC
current (measured in ohms).
This equation is sometimes written as:
XL = wL
Let’s solve the following problem.
Example: The inductance of the coil in Figure 25 is 1.5 millihenries,

and the frequency of the current is 2.5 kilohertz. The applied AC voltage
is 10 V. What is the inductive reactance of the coil? How much current
is flowing through the circuit? (Disregard any transient condition in
the startup of the circuit.)
Solution A: XL = 2pfL
= 2 ´ 3.14 ´ 2.5 ´ 103 ´ 1.5 ´ 10–3
= 23.6 ohms
V 10
Solution B: I = = = 423 miliamperes
X L 23.6
FIGURE 25—The
inductance of the
coil is 1.5 millihenries.
10V
1.5 mH
2.5 kHz
Power Check 2
1. What is the symbol for angular velocity?
____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the equation for angular velocity when the time, t, for one cycle is known?
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the equation for angular velocity when the frequency of the projected sine wave is
known?
____________________________________________________________________________
4. How does the length of a rotating phasor affect the projected sine wave?
____________________________________________________________________________
5. How many radians are there in one complete revolution of a phasor?
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Arcing at switch contacts in an inductive circuit can be greatly reduced by connecting a

_______ across the switch contacts.
7. The dielectric of a capacitor is a material considered to be made up of many tiny _______.

8. True or False? In the region between the plates of a charged capacitor, there are electric
field lines.
9. Can a capacitor with a vacuum dielectric be charged?
____________________________________________________________________________
10. The opposition that a capacitor offers to the flow of alternating current is called
capacitive _______.
11. True or False? X = 1 2pfc is the correct equation for the opposition a capacitor offers to
C
the flow of AC current.
12. Convert 165 kilohertz to hertz.
____________________________________________________________________________
13. Convert 1.50 microfarads to farads.
____________________________________________________________________________
(Continued)
Power Check 2
14. The opposition that an inductor offers to the flow of alternating current is called
inductive _______.
15. Anytime there’s relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, there’s a voltage
generated across the conductor. This is a statement of _______ law.
16. The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of alternating current is called _______.
17. How much AC current flows in a 2-henry inductive circuit if the applied voltage is 120 volts
at 60 hertz?
____________________________________________________________________________
18. What is the capacitive reactance of a 27 microfarad capacitor in a 400 hertz circuit?
____________________________________________________________________________

DETERMINING IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGLES FOR

RC, RL, AND RLC CIRCUITS
Review of Right Triangle Calculations

In the next section, you’ll find a number of applications that require
your understanding of right triangle calculations. It’s a good idea to
review these calculations at this time.
A right angle is defined as a 90-degree angle. Any triangle that has an

inside angle of 90° is called a right triangle. Remember, in any triangle,
all of the inside angles of the triangle will add to 180°. In the right tri-
angle of Figure 26, angles A and B will add to equal 90° so that—when
added to right angle C—the total number of degrees in the triangle
is 180°.
It’s important to understand the Pythagorean theorem for right trian-

gles. It states that the sum of the squares of sides equals the square of
the hypotenuse. In Figure 26, the hypotenuse is marked with the letter c.
Notice that the sides of the triangle are marked with lowercase letters,
and the angles are marked with capital letters.
In the form of an equation, the Pythagorean theorem is
a2+b2=c2
where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a right triangle.
It’s very likely that you’ll be asked to find the length of the hypotenuse
when you know the lengths of the sides. Here’s the equation that you
would use:
c = a2 +b2
FIGURE 26—A + B = 90
degrees in any right B
triangle.
c a
A C
b
SYMBOL FOR 90
There are three relationships based upon trigonometry that you

should know. They’re sine, cosine, and tangent. They’re ratios based
upon the lengths of the sides. When reviewing the following relation-
ships in equation form, refer to the standard right triangle shown in
Figure 26.
a
sin A =
c
b
cos A =
c
a
tan A =
b
To practice solving problems using the equations above on a scientific

calculator, follow these steps:
Find the sine of 30 degrees.
Keystrokes Display Calculator
[30] [SIN] [=] 0.5 Answer: The sine of 30

degrees is 0.5.
Find the cosine of 30.
[30] [COS] [=] 0.866025404 Answer: The cosine of 30

degrees is 0.866.
Find the tangent of 30 degrees.
[30] [TAN] [=] 0.577350269 Answer: The tangent of

30 degrees is 0.577.
Note: The [=] is optional in these examples, but it’s a good idea for
some calculations.
Now, let’s solve a problem using these functions.
Example: What is the sine of angle A of the triangle shown in

Figure 27A?
FIGURE 27—From the

information in Figure 27A,
you can find all other
values of the triangle in
Figure 27B.
Solution: Sine angle A = opposite side ¸ hypotenuse = 26 ¸ 49.4 = 0.526.
Remember that 0.526 is the sine of angle A. If you want the value of
angle A in degrees, you must take the inverse sine of 0.526, which is
written sin–1 0.526. That does not mean sine raised to the –1 exponent.
It’s simply a mathematical way of saying inverse sine. On a scientific
calculator, it’s usually found by taking the second function [2nd] of
the sine.
Example: [0.526] [2nd] [SIN] = 31.7 degrees.
Figure 27B shows the triangle of Figure 27A with the values of the
sides and the value of angle A. Use the Pythagorean theorem to
show that the correct value is shown for the hypotenuse.
c = 42 2 + 26 2 = 49. 396
Reactances and Impedances as Phasors

Figure 28 is an illustration of how we use four quadrants to plot
phasors. Observe in Figure 28A that the quadrants are numbered
counterclockwise. This arrangement is used in the United States, and
it has several names: x-y plot, x-y coordinates, and Cartesian coordinates.
FIGURE 28—The RL phasors

representing the series RL +y
circuit can be resolved as II I
in (C).
x +x
III IV
y
(A)
R = 100Ω
XL Z = 141Ω
Z
V X L = 100Ω
R
(B) (C)
You can use the information in Figure 28B to find the impedance
phasor, Z
Z = R 2 + XL 2
= 100 2 + 100 2 = 141 ohms
The phasors you’ll be dealing with will always be in the first or fourth
quadrants. That includes the lines that are used for boundaries of
those quadrants. The zero-degree line is sometimes called the reference
line, because all phasors are positioned with reference to that line.
In the series circuit of Figure 29A, the phasors are marked for the
voltages across the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance. For instance, the voltage across the capacitor is I times XC,
the capacitive reactance. The voltage across the resistance is in the
zero position. In the phasor diagram, the current and voltage are
seen to be in phase in that position.
FIGURE 29—A series RLC

circuit with voltage formulas
across each component is
shown in Figure 29A. In
Figure 29B, a phasor R IR IX
L
diagram shows the current
resistance, and voltage
phase relationship. In Figure
29C, you’ll see that when the ORIGIN
phasor diagram is divided XL IX
L I R V
by I, you get a phasor (VOLTS)
diagram for components.
PHASOR DIAGRAM
XC IX
C IX
C
(A) (B)
XL
XC
(C)
The voltage across the inductive reactance (IXL) is leading the current
phasor because the current lags the voltage across an inductor.
Remember that the positive direction of rotation of the phasors is
counterclockwise.
The voltage across the capacitive reactance (IXC) is lagging 90 degrees

behind the current. Another way of saying that the capacitive reactance
is lagging 90 degrees behind the current is that the current is leading
the voltage across the capacitor.
In Figure 29C, each of the phasors in Figure 29B has been divided by I.
The result shows that resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive
reactance can be represented by phasors.
As an example, the circuit of Figure 30A has only inductive reactance

and resistance. The phasor representation is shown in Figure 30B.

a series RL circuit has
a phasor diagram of
Figure 30B, which can be
R = 100Ω
resolved to show an
impedance of 141 ohms
as in Figure 30C. V
XL = 100Ω
(A)
XL = 100Ω
Ω
+
XL
1
14
R = 100Ω R
(B) (C)
The phasors in Figure 30B can be combined into a single phasor as

shown in Figure 30C. This is called vector addition, or resolving the
phasors.
In order to visualize vector addition, refer to Figure 31A. Two dogs

are pulling a sled. Their forces on the sled are vectors because they
representforces applied at a distance. The vectors are marked on the
drawing. Note: The actual direction of the sled is the vector sum of
the two vector forces produced by the dogs.
Figure 31B shows the vectors are added by the parallelogram method.
Lines are drawn parallel to the vectors to form a parallelogram. An
arrow is drawn from the origin—which is the location of the sled—to
the points where the added lines meet. That line is called the resultant
of the two vectors, or the vector sum.
This same technique was shown in Figure 30C for resolving phasors.
In that case shown in Figure 30C, the parallelogram was actually a
rectangle.
The resultant of the phasors in Figure 30C represents the total opposi-
tion to current flow in the circuit of Figure 30A.
That opposition is called the impedance. The impedance of an AC

circuit is the combined opposition due to all of the resistances and
reactances. That combined opposition is obtained by resolving all
of the phasors that represent opposition to current flow, and it’s
represented by an uppercase Z.
ACTUAL DIRECTION
DOG #1 OF SLED
DOG #2
DOG #1
DOG #2
SLED
SLED
(A) (B)
FIGURE 31—Two dogs pulling a sled in different directions introduce a vector problem in Figure 31A. In
Figure 31B, the vectors can be resolved to show the resultant direction of the sled.
The length of the impedance phasor is measured in the same units as

the resistor and inductive reactance phasors. In other words, if those
phasors are drawn so that one inch represents 100 ohms, then the
length of the impedance phasor can be measured, and the impedance—
in ohms—can be determined.
The impedance in any AC circuit can be obtained by drawing the

phasors for R, L, and C on graph paper and by measuring the length
of the resultant to determine the impedance value in ohms. Let’s work
on a problem using the graphical method.
The answer to the graphical solution can’t be determined as accurately

as a mathematical solution. However, a graphical solution can be used
as a method of checking a math solution. Also, it’s easier in most cases
than a math solution.
Example: What is the impedance of the circuit in Figure 32A, and how
much current will flow in the circuit?
Solution: Figure 32B shows the R and XC phasors drawn to a scale of

1 inch represents 100 ohms. The illustration has been reduced for
presentation here, but the inch markings are clearly shown. As you
can see, the phasor representing the resistor is three inches long to
represent 300 ohms. The phasor that represents a capacitive reactance
of 400 ohms is 4 inches long.
FIGURE 32—The series RC

circuit in Figure 32A can be
R = 300Ω
represented by R and XC
phasors. The resulting
impedance phasor can be R 300Ω
X C = 400Ω
obtained by resolving the R Z = 500Ω
500V
and XC phasors (Figure 32B).
XC 400Ω
(A) (B)
The impedance, which is the resultant, is 5 inches long. Therefore, the

impedance, Z, of the circuit is 500 ohms. The current in the circuit is
obtained by an Ohm’s law type of equation:
V 500 volts
I= = = 1 ampere
Z 500 ohms
Working with Math Symbols

An important part of this study unit is the introduction of math symbols
that you may encounter in technical literature. Your understanding
of electronics is directly related to your understanding of what the
symbols mean, and your ability to work with the symbols.
In this section, we’ll introduce some additional math symbols that will
be used for working with right triangles that are related to impedance
triangle problems.
In any right triangle, the relationships of the sides to the angles is the
same regardless of the size of the triangle. In other words, if the angles
are the same, the relationships are the same whether the sides are
measured in inches, centimeters, or miles.
The triangle in Figure 33 has sides in the ratio of 3 to 4 to 5. This type

of triangle is used so often it’s sometimes called a standard 3-4-5 right
triangle (Figure 33).
FIGURE 33—This is a 3-4-5

triangle.
5
3
You’ve already learned the three basic right-angle relationships: sine,

cosine, and tangent. There are three additional relationships for the
standard triangle. Here are those relationships and their names (the
variables used refer back to Figure 26):
c
Cosecant (csc ) A =
a
c
Secant ( sec ) A =
b
b
Cotangent (cot ) A =
a
Although you won’t see these relationships as often as sine, cosine,

and tangent, you’ll encounter cosecant, secant, and cotangent in
technical literature, and you should know them.
In some cases, you’ll be given the value of a trigonometric relation-

ship, such as the value of the sine, and you’ll need to be able to find
the angle. This angle is called the inverse sine, and it’s represented by
the symbol sin–1.
For example, suppose you know that sin A = 0.26. Now that you
know the sine of the angle, you can determine the angle. The equa-
tion would be
sin–1 0.26 = number of degrees = 15.07°.
The inverse sine is sometimes identified that way on scientific

calculators.
Let’s solve the above problem on the scientific calculator.
[.26] [2nd] [SIN] [=] 15.07006214 Find the inverse sine of

0.26. Answer: 15.07°.
The symbolism is the same for inverse cosine and inverse tangent.
Let’s practice finding the inverse cosine of the following problem using
the scientific calculator. Again, we’re assuming that your calculator will
perform the inverse cosine function by hitting the [2nd], then [COS]
keys. Be sure this is the case.
Let’s find x when we’re given cos x = 0.555.
[.555] [±] [2nd] [COS–1] [=] 56.28928522 Find the inverse cosine
of 0.555. Answer: x = 56.3°.
The j Operator
In the world of mathematics, an operator is a symbol that tells you what
to do with what follows. Some examples of operators are +, –, ´, and ¸.
In the days before World War II, a vacuum tube amplifier that was
designed to solve those arithmetic operations was called an operational
amplifier. Today, an operational amplifier is designed to perform many
more arithmetic operations.
The j operator is a special symbol that tells you which direction to turn
on a graph. The expression a +j tells you to turn left 90 degrees. The
expression a – j tells you to turn to the right 90 degrees.
Figure 34 shows examples of using +j and –j for locating points on a

graph. Let’s try plotting two different points using a j operator.

shows the graphical
direction of +j and –j.
+j
O
Example 1: Plot the point 4+j3 on a graph.
Solution: Figure 35 shows how the plotting is done. The 4 is considered

to be positive. (The first number is always considered to be positive.) In
this case, the positive first number tells you to move to the right. It tells
you to start at the origin and move to the right 4 units. The +j3 tells you
to turn left 90 degrees and move upward three units. The point 4+j3 is
marked on the graph.
FIGURE 35—Location of
4+j3
4 + j3
3
0
1 2 3 4
4 + j3
Example 2: Plot the point 3–j4 on a graph.
Solution: Figure 36 shows how the plotting is done. The positive 3

tells you to move 3 units to the right. The –j4 tells you to turn to the
right and go 4 units. The point 3–j4 is marked on the graph.
FIGURE 36—Location of
3–j4 3
0 1 2
1
3 j4 4
Both of the problem-solving examples show that j is an operator that

tells you what to do with the next number. The 4+j3 and 3–j4 values
are called complex numbers. The 4+j3 and 3–j4 values are the two legs of
a right triangle as shown in Figure 37.
You should think of the complex impedances as being complete de-

scriptions of an impedance that form the legs of an impedance trian-
gle. The symbol for an impedance described that way is Z,& and you’ll
sometimes hear it referred to as z-dot. Here are some examples of the
way z-dot is written:
Z& = 5+j10
and
Z& = 230–j124
FIGURE 37—The j operators

represent legs on
impedance triangles.
Z
+j X
L
j
Z XC
Remember this important thing about z-dot. Z-dot isn’t a value of

impedance. Z-dot is a method of describing impedance. In the world
of mathematics, a z-dot is called “a complex number in rectangular
form.” Later, we’ll discuss complex numbers in other forms.
An important thing to know is that complex impedances can be

treated as numbers in computation. As an example, consider the
following two phasors: 7+j5 and 5–j3. If it becomes necessary to add
those phasors—because they represent complex impedances in se-
ries—they can be added as numbers as shown in Figure 38. As you
can see, the j-numbers—sometimes called imaginary numbers—are
added separately to get the phasor sum.
Rectangular coordinates are important in electronics because they

establish the position of Z, which is the magnitude of the impedance.
Indirectly, Z also represents the angular position of the impedance by
resolving the real and imaginary parts of the phasors. As shown in
Figure 38, the real part of the rectangular impedance represents the
resistive part, and the imaginary part represents the reactance. The term
imaginary is unfortunate: it comes from the fact that it’s impossible to
take the square root of –1. However, the term imaginary is useful for
describing phasor impedances.
FIGURE 38—Addition of
Rectangular Coordinates
7 + j5
5 j3
Z 7 + j5
7 + j5
5 j3 V
12 + j2 EQUALS PHASOR SUM
Z 5 j3
Coordinates
Polar coordinates and Euler (pronounced oiler) notation are two addi-
tional ways to describe phasor impedance. Polar coordinates and
Euler notation are similar, and they can be studied together.
As shown in Figure 39, the magnitude and phase angle of an impedance

can be used to completely describe an impedance on a graph. Always
remember that the magnitude of an impedance in a series circuit is
obtained from the equation:
Z = R 2 + ( XL - X c )2
FIGURE 39—The
Illustration of
Impedance
Represented as a
Polar Coordinate
=
Figure 40 shows two impedance (Z1 and Z2) connected in parallel. To

determine the total impedance (ZT), use the standard formula given in
Figure 40.

shows how polar
coordinates and polar to
rectangular conversions can
be used to solve a parallel =
impedance problem.
The solution is as follows:
Z1 Z 2
ZT =
Z1 + Z 2
(10 Ð25 ° )( 3 Ð30 ° )

ZT =
Z1 + Z 2
30 Ð55 °
ZT =
Z1 + Z 2
Calculate Z1 and Z2 as follows:
Z1 = 10 Ð25°
Z1 = 10 (cos 25° + j sin 25°)
Z1 = 10 (0.9 + j0.4)
Z1 = 9 + j4
Z2 = 3 Ð30°
Z2 = 3 (cos 30° + j sin 30°)
Z2 = 3 (0.8660 + j0.5)
Z2 = 2.5 + j1.5
Then, substitute the rectangular coordinate back into the formula:
30 Ð55 °
ZT =
(9 + j 4 ) + (2 . 5 + j1. 5 )
30 Ð55 °
ZT =
11. 5 + 5. 5
Convert the rectangular form 11.5 + j5.5 (a + jb) to polar form (r Ðq)
as follows:
r= a2 +b 2
r= 11. 5 2 + 5. 5 2
r =12 .75
5. 5
Phase angle: q (pronounced theta) = tan-1
11. 5
q = 25.5°
Thus, in the polar form of r Ðq:
Z1 + Z2 = 12.75 Ð2.5°
30 Ð55 °
ZT =
12 .75 Ð25. 5 °
ZT = 2.35 Ð29.5°
As you can see from the preceding example, finding the combined
impedance of two parallel impedances, it becomes necessary to
convert from rectangular form to polar form, and from polar form to
rectangular form.
Here are some important things to remember about the rectangular

and polar forms:
· Impedances can be easily added and subtracted when they’re in

rectangular form. They cannot be added when they’re in the polar
or Euler forms.
· If impedances are to be multiplied or divided, it’s easiest to do if

they’re in polar form.
· Your scientific calculator should have a keypunch series that

permits direct rectangular-to-polar and polar-to-rectangular
conversions.
It’s helpful to know that capital letters from the beginning of the
alphabet are used to represent numbers in rectangular form; capital
letters near the end of the alphabet are used to represent numbers in
polar and Euler forms.
Power in AC Circuits
In a DC circuit, there are several ways to calculate power:
P=V´I
V2
P=
R
P = I 2R
In an AC circuit in which there’s no phase angle between the voltage

and current, the same equations are used. However, if there’s no
phase angle between the voltage and current, the symbols V and I in
the above equations represent RMS values.
Remember that the RMS values of voltage or current and the average
values of voltage and current can be obtained from the maximum
values:
VRMS = 0.707 ´ VMAX
IRMS = 0.707 ´ I MAX
If more accurate values are required, replace 0.707 with 1 divided by

the square root of 2:
1
= 0.707106781
2
Note: Average values of voltage and current (which aren’t used in this
study unit) are determined from the maximum values:
VAVE = 0.636 ´ V MAX
IAVE = 0.636 ´ I MAX
If more accurate values are needed, replace 0.636 with 2 divided by p:
2
= 0.636619772
p
If you multiply the RMS voltage by the RMS current of a circuit that
has a phase angle, you won’t get the true power for that circuit. The
reason is that the RMS voltage and the RMS current maximum values
don’t occur at the same time, and the products don’t take the phase
angles into consideration. So, V ´ I gives the apparent power, and it’s
measured in volt-amperes.
Refer to Figure 41A to see the phasor that represents apparent power.
The phase angle (q) is the same as the phase angle between the voltage
and current in the AC circuit.
If you complete the triangle that involves the apparent power and the
phase angle, the result is the power triangle shown in Figure 41B. You
should memorize the power triangle, because it defines all of the types
of power in an AC circuit that have a phase angle.
FIGURE 41—Figure 41A

shows that in an AC circuit
the apparent power I
X
V
is V ´ I. =
ER
P OW
NT
RE
PA
AP
θ
(A)
(REACTIVE VOLT-AMPERES)
I
X
V
=
ER
P OW
VARS
NT
RE
PA
AP
θ
TRUE POWER =
V X I COS θ
(B)
From this triangle and the definition of cosine given earlier, you can
write the following equation:
true power
cos q =
apparent power
From the equation above, you can write the following very important
equation:
true power = apparent power ´ cos q
You can think of cos q as being the quantity needed to change the
apparent power into true power. This quantity is called the power factor.
So, true power = apparent power ´ power factor.
A power factor indicates that there’s a phase angle between the

voltage and the current in the circuit. A power generator will become
overheated when there’s a phase angle in the circuit the generator
supplies with power.
The problem is so serious that power companies have the right to tax a
company that’s causing the voltage and current to get out of phase. In
order to avoid the problem, power companies have automatic equip-
ment that regulates the power and that introduces a phase angle of
zero degrees on the power line.
The cosine of zero degrees is equal to 1.0. So, the ideal value of the
power factor is 1.0.
A Z-angle meter is used to measure the phase angle between voltage

and current. A version of the Z-angle meter automatically measures
the power factor on the power line.
The actual power, also called the true power or resistive power, is equal to
the product of the RMS voltage and RMS current multiplied by the
cosine of the phase angle:
true power = V ´ I ´ cos q
In the power triangle, the term VARS stands for reactive volt-amperes.
VARS is an imaginary power that would be dissipated by reactive
components (inductors and capacitors) in a circuit.
A Special Series RLC Circuit

Do you remember the impedance equation we used earlier?
Z = R 2 + ( XL - X c )2
When a series AC circuit has resistance, capacitance, and inductance,

you have to resolve the XC and XL phasors before solving for the
impedance value. As shown in Figure 42, these phasors are 180° out
of phase. Their resultant is obtained by simple subtraction. The usual
procedure is to subtract the smaller from the larger and take the reac-
tance of the larger.
Example: In a series AC circuit, R = 100 ohms, XL = 50 ohms, and

XC = 50 ohms. What is the impedance of the circuit?
Solution: First, resolve the reactance phasors. X = XL – XC = 0.
Since the reactances cancel, there’s only a resistance of 100 ohms

serving as the impedance.
Note that it doesn’t matter whether XL or XC is larger—after the

phasor values are subtracted, the result is squared, and a squared
value will always be positive.
The impedance formula we just used is called a general-case formula,

because it can be used for any AC series circuit. If any one of the three
components (R, L, or C) is missing in the circuit, that component is
given a value of zero.
Now, take time to reinforce your understanding of phasors for R, XC

and XL by completing Power Check 3.
Power Check 3
1. A right angle is an angle that measures _______ degrees.
2. A right triangle always has one angle that measures _______ degrees.
3. The sum of all of the inside angles in a triangle must equal _______ degrees.
4. Write the Pythagorean theorem for a right triangle having sides marked s, t, and u
(where u is the hypotenuse).
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Write the equation for finding the length of the hypotenuse for the triangle described in
Question 4 above. (Side u is the hypotenuse.)
____________________________________________________________________________
Refer to the triangle in Figure 42 to answer questions 6–12. Calculate the numerical
values requested.
6. sin x = __________
7. sin y = __________ Y
8. cos x = __________
z
9. cos y = __________
x
10. tan x = __________ X Z

y
11. tan y = __________

12. Calculate the value of the following: sin 30° + cos 30° = ________.
2 2
(Continued)
Power Check 3
Calculate the numerical values of the following:

5
13. If sin H = , then H = _______ degrees.
6.4
4
14. If cos H = , then H = _______ degrees.
6.4
5
15. If tan H = , then H = _______ degrees.
4
16. Given: sin x = 0.445, find angle x.
____________________________________________________________________________
17. Given: cos x = 0.018, find x.
____________________________________________________________________________
18. Given: tan x = 1.5, find x.

19. Given: sin x = 1.0, find x.
____________________________________________________________________________
20. How are quadrants on an x-y graph numbered?
____________________________________________________________________________
21. True or False? The direction of rotation for phasors in the United States is counter-
clockwise.
22. An arrow that represents magnitude of speed and direction on earth is called a _______.
23. The combined opposition to current flow (due to R, X , and X ) in an AC circuit is called
C L
_______.
24. A series RCL circuit has an impedance (Z) of 240 ohms. An applied AC voltage of 8 volts is
connected across the circuit. How much current is flowing in the circuit?
____________________________________________________________________________
(Continued)
Power Check 3
25. If the sine of an angle is 0.345, what is the angle in degrees?
____________________________________________________________________________
26. In what parts of an x-y graph will you find impedance phasors?
____________________________________________________________________________
27. If a sine wave takes 0.001 second to complete one cycle, what is the frequency?
____________________________________________________________________________
28. If the angular velocity of a sine wave is 377, what is the frequency?
____________________________________________________________________________
29. What is the name given for the cosine of the phase angle between V and I in an AC
circuit?
____________________________________________________________________________

NOTES
67
Power Check Answers
1 2
1. True 1. w (omega)
2. The energy is stored in the surrounding 2p
2. w =
magnetic field. (The energy is returned t
when the current through the inductor
is interrupted.) 3. w = 2pf
3. Resistors; capacitors; inductors 4. The length of the phasor determines the

amplitude of the projected sine wave.
4. An inductor
5. 2p radians
5. active
6. capacitor
6. Wire-wound resistors
7. electric dipoles
7. In a capacitor, the energy is stored in the
dielectric material between the plates. 8. True
8. Two effects of AC current flowing 9. Yes

through a resistor are heat generation
10. reactance
and an AC voltage drop across the
resistor. 11. True
9. A capacitor 12. 1.65 ´ 103 hertz
10. False 13. 1.50 ´ 10–6 farads
11. velocity 14. reactance
12. radians 15. Faraday’s
13. p/2 radians 16. inductive reactance
14. 1.5 ´ p radians 17. First, find the inductive reactance:
15. 0.667 ´ p radians XL = 2pfL = 2 p ´ 60 Hz ´ 2 = 754 ohms
16. 30° 120V
Then: I = V X L = = 0.159 A =
17. 360° 754 ohms
159 mA
18. 57.3°
68 Power Check Answers
18. Start by writing the equation for 15. H = tan–1 5 4 = 51.34 degrees
capacitive reactance:
16. Angle x = sin–1 0.445 = 26.42 degrees
1
Xc = 17. Angle x = cos–1 0.018 = 88.97 degrees
2 pfC
18. Angle x = tan–1 1.5 = 56.31 degrees
Next, calculate the value of the denomi-
nator. 19. Angle x = sin–1 1.0 = 90 degrees
2 pfC = 2 p ´ 400 ´ 0.000027 = 0.0679 20. I, II, III, and IV
Then, take the reciprocal (1/x) of the 21. True
denominator to get XC:
22. vector
1
Xc = = 14 .7 ohms 23. impedance
0.0679
24. I = V Z = 8 240= 0.033 amps = 33 mA
3 25. Angle x = sin–1 0.345 = 20.18 degrees

26. I and IV
1. 90 27. 1,000 cycles per second
2. 90 28. 60 hertz
3. 180 29. Power factor
4. u2 = s2 + t2
5. u = s 2 + t 2
6. sin x = x z
7. sin y = y z
8. cos x = y z
9. cos y = x z
10. tan x = x
y
11. tan y = y
x
12. In symbols, sin2 30° means to find the

sin of 30 degrees and then square it.
Likewise, cos2 30° means to find the
cos of 30 degrees and then square it.
sin2 30° = 0.25 degrees, and cos2 30° =
0.75 degrees. So, 0.25° + 0.75° = 1.
13. H = sin–1 5 6. 4 = 51.38 degrees
14. H = cos–1 4 6. 4 = 51.32 degrees
Examination 69
Reactance and Impedance
EXAMINATION NUMBER:
08603700
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com
When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in this study unit, complete the following
examination. Then submit only your answers to the school for grading, using one of the examination answer
options described in your “Test Materials” envelope. Send your answers for this examination as soon as you
complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.
Questions 1–20: Select the one best answer to each question.
1. Which of the following is not a passive component?

A. Transistor C. Capacitor
B. Resistor D. Inductor
2. Which of the following is a component that opposes any change in current through it?
A. Air-dielectric capacitor C. Coil
B. Mylar-dielectric capacitor D. Resistor
3. According to Faraday’s Law, every time there’s motion between a conductor and magnetic field, there’s
A. a current generated. C. friction.
B. heat generated. D. a voltage generated.
70 Examination
4. When an AC sine wave current flows through an inductor, the current

A. leads the voltage. C. is a square wave.
B. is in phase with the voltage. D. lags the voltage.
5. How many radians are equal to 57.3 degrees?
A. p C. 1.0
B. 2p D. p2
6. Which of the following is a component that opposes any change in voltage across its terminals?
A. Resistor C. Inductor
B. Capacitor D. Transistor
7. Components that do not generate a voltage are called _______ components.

A. intrinsic C. bilateral
B. active D. passive
8. How many radians are there in 90 degrees?
A. p radians C. p/4 radians

B. 2p radians D. p/2 radians
9. Which of the following is a correct statement concerning omega (w)?
A. w is no longer being used. C. w must be converted to radians.

B. w is equal to 2pf. D. w must be converted to degrees.
10. Capactive reactance is measured in

A. ohms. C. microfarads.
B. farads. D. henries.
11. On a graph of a sine wave, time

A. gets later as you move to the right.
B. stands still if the graph is plotted on a degree axis.
C. gets later as you move to the left.
D. stands still if the graph is plotted on the radian axis.
12. Which of the following is correct?
A. p radians = 90° C. p radians = 270°

B. p radians = 180° D. p radians = 360°
13. How long does it take a capacitor to charge through a resistor to 63% of the applied DC voltage?
A. 50% of one time constant C. one time constant
B. 0.63 of one time constant D. 0.63 seconds
14. Which of the following is correct for scientific notation?

A. 600,000 Hertz C. 600 ´ 103 Hertz
B. 6000 ´ 102 Hertz D. 6 ´ 10 Hertz
5
Examination 71
15. Which of the following is the meaning of di/dt?

A. Magnitude of current C. Current at some instant of time
B. Change in current D. Rate of change of current
16. Which of the following is the same as 6 nanofarads?
A. 6 ´ 10–9 farads C. 6 ´ 10 farads

–12
B. 6 ´ 10–6 farads D. 6 ´ 10 farads

6
17. Which of the following is correct for determining capacitive reactance?
A. Xc = 2pf/t C. Xc = 0.159/fc
B. Xc = 1/wC D. Xc = 0.159 ´ R ´ C
18. Any periodic wave, regardless of its wave shape, can be constructed with a combination of
A. square waves. C. triangular waves.
B. sine waves. D. angles.
19. In the time-constant curve of a resistor and large inductor, the initial part of the curve that represents
the start-up of current is blank. That blank space is due to
A. inductive reactance. C. kickback voltage.
B. slow switching speed. D. switching delay.
20. Which of the following is correct for calculating inductive reactances?

di C. XL = time constant ´ L
A. XL = L
dt
B. XL = 2pfL D. XL = 12pfL

Reactance and Impedance: Study Unit

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Reactance and Impedance: Study Unit

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Study Unit

Joseph A. Risse, P.E.

J. A. Sam Wilson, M.S., CET

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to

· Calculate time relationships in circuits

· Determine the reactance of a capacitor or inductor in an AC (alternating current) circuit

· Calculate the impedance of series RLC (resistive-inductive-capacitive) circuits

· Work with j operators

DETERMINING INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE . . . . . . . . 15

DETERMINING IMPEDANCE AND PHASE ANGLES FOR RC,

POWER CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Reactance and Impedance

Components that do not generate a voltage or current are called passive

FIGURE 1—A basic

Let’s take a brief look at resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

· A resistor is a component that opposes the flow of current in both

· A capacitor is a component that opposes any change in voltage

· An inductor is a component that opposes any change of current

Physical Laws and Effects

· Every time there’s a current flow, there’s always a magnetic field

· The direction of the magnetic field around a current is directly

· Every time a conductor moves through a magnetic field, there’s

· Every time an alternating current flows through a resistor, there

1. There’s always heat generated.

2. There’s always an AC voltage drop across the resistor.

FIGURE 2—When electron

· A resistor does not cause the voltage and current in an AC circuit

FIGURE 3—The sine wave

Every time there’s a flow of AC current through a capacitor, there are

· There’s always a shift in phase between the voltage and current.

FIGURE 4—The sine wave

· There’s always an AC voltage drop across the capacitor when an

Every time there’s a flow of AC current through an inductor, there are

· There’s always a shift in phase between the voltage and current.

FIGURE 5—The sine wave

· There’s always an AC voltage drop across the inductor when

Using the Scientific Calculator

Let’s try the following example problem.

What is the square root of 42 + 32?

Keystrokes Display Description

[4] [X2] [=] 16 Begin by taking

[+] [3] [X2] [=] 25 Then, add the

[ ] [=] 5 Finally, take the

Review of Radian Measurement

The measurement of angles in degrees is a popular idea with people

In equation form, p radians = 180°.

where 180 degrees/p radians is the multiplier.

where (p radians/180 degrees) is also called the multiplier.

How do you remember which equation to use? Remember that p

A scientific calculator can be used to easily find the number of degrees

Keystrokes Display Description

[5] [´] [180] [=] 900 Multiply 5 ´ 180.

[¸] [2nd] [p] [=] 286.4788976 Divide by p.

Keystrokes Display Description

[200] [´] [2nd][p] [=] 628.318307 Multiply 200 ´ p.

[¸] [180] [=] 3.49068504 Divide by 180 degrees.

Remember that in both of the equations above, you’re only using a

To summarize, when you use the equations to convert units, always

Questions 1–10: Convert the values in the following problems.

3. 270° = ______ radians

5. 30° = ______ radians

6. 45° = ______ radians