TRANSDUCERS

Transducer – a device that converts one form of energy into another form of energy
Sensor – a device that detects/measures changes in physical/chemical quantity and gives
proportional electrical output
Detector – a device used to sense physical quantity or phenomenon
Transmitter – a device that converts output of the primary element into usable signal (4-
20ma, 0-10v,etc)

TRANSDUCER = Sensing element + Signal conditioning circuits

↑ amplifiers, bridge circuits, ADC, DAC, voltage
converters, current
converters, frequency to voltage converter, voltage to
frequency converter

ACCDG. TO FUNCTION
1. Input Transducer (Sensor) - converts physical/chemical quantity into electrical
signal (voltage, current)
Ex. Microphone (acoustic/sound pressure into electrical signal)
2. Output Transducer (Actuator) – converts signal (usually electrical) into action
(usually mechanical)
Ex. Loudspeaker (electrical signal into acoustic/sound pressure)

SENSORS ACTUATORS
LDR Lamp
Photodiode
Photovoltaic
Photoconductive cell

Thermocouple Heater
RTD
Thermistor
Bimetallic
Liquid-filled glass thermometer
Pyrometers

Strain gauge Solenoid

Load cells Relay
Potentiometer Motor (stepper, servo)
Capacitive sensor
Inductive sensor
LVDT
Piezoelectric sensor
Accelerometer
Encoders
Tachometers
Bourdon tubes
bellows
Diaphragm

Loudspeaker
 microphone Headphone
Buzzer
Hall-effect sensors
Flux-gate compass
Magneto resistor

Gas sensor

ACCDG. TO POWER REQUIREMENT

1. Passive (self-generating) – generates electrical output without power source
Ex. Thermocouple, photovoltaic cells
2. Active (modulating) – requires power source to generate electrical output
Ex. Thermistor, potentiometer

ACCDG. TO PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL QUANTITY

1. Thermal – temperature, heat, heat flow
2. Mechanical – force, pressure, velocity, acceleration, position
3. Chemical – concentration or composition
4. Magnetic – field intensity and flux density
5. Radiant – electro-magnetic wave intensity, wavelength, polarization and phase
6. Electrical – voltage, current, charge

THERMAL SENSORS
1. Thermocouple – temperature transducer consisting of two wires made of different
metals
soldered or welded together.
- principle: Seebeck Effect (opposite of Peltier Effect)
- Seebeck Effect - a phenomenon by which a soldered or welded junction of two
dissimilar metals
generates a voltage that is proportional to the temperature of the junction.

- Thermopile – group of thermocouples connected in series

↑ Temp = ↑ Voltage Output

Types: Type T > copper(+) and constantan(-) /( for general purpose and low
temp)
Type E > chromel(+) and constantan(-)
Type J > iron(+) and constantan(-)
Type K > chromel(+) and alumel(-)

Constantan = copper and nickel

Chromel = nickel + chromium
Alumel= nickel + aluminium + Mn + Si

2. RTD – Resistance Temperature Detector or resistive temperature detector

- Metal or alloys
 - Most stable and linear but expensive and with small resistance change with
temp

↑ Temp = ↑ Resistance (PTC)

3. Thermistor - Thermal Resistor
- Semiconductor type, most sensitive but non-linear
- Self-heating is a disadvantage for several temperature transducers, including
thermistors. Selfheating is a device's tendency to heat up beyond its
surrounding (ambient) temperature due to its own power dissipation.
- Most thermistors have ↑Temp = ↓ Resistance (NTC thermistor)
- But there are thermistors with ↑Temp = ↑ Resistance (PTC thermistor)

4. Bimetallic (or thermostat) – constructed from two strips of different metals bonded
together with different coefficient of thermal expansion. When the strip is heated
one metal expands lesser while the other metal expands more leading to the
deflection of the bimetallic strip, which is converted into the rotary motion of the
pointer that indicates the temperature.

– types: snap-action(fast) and creep-action(slow)

– converts temperature into physical displacement

5. Optical and Radiation Pyrometers – used where direct contact is not possible
– Principle: A body above 0K emits electromagnetic
radiation. Intensity of the radiation is a measure of the
 temperature of the body. Intensity ranges from invisible
infra-red rays to visible light range.

6. Liquid Filled thermal systems – ex. Glass Thermometers

MECHANICAL SENSORS

1. Capacitive sensor = principle:

2. Piezo electric sensor – principle: piezo electric effect - when mechanical force is
applied to crystal, proportional voltage is produced, vice versa

3. Accelerometer – converts acceleration into variable electric current using spring-

mass system
- Newton’s 2nd law (F=ma) and Hooke’s Law (F=kDx)

4. Inductive sensor – when a conductor is passed with current, electro-magnetic field is

created around the
conductor, and when disturbed by nearby ferrous material,
eddy current is produced
- Eddy current sensor

Eddy-Current sensors operate with magnetic fields. The driver creates an alternating
current in the sensing coil in the end of the probe. This creates an alternating
 magnetic field with induces small currents in the target material; these currents are
called eddy currents. The eddy currents create an opposing magnetic field which
resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The interaction of the magnetic
fields is dependent on the distance between the probe and the target. As the
distance changes, the electronics sense the change in the field interaction and
produce a voltage output which is proportional to the
change in distance between the probe and target.

5. LVDT (linear variable differential transformer)

6. Strain gauge –
strain gauge - a transducer whose resistance varies as a function of strain.
strain - the amount of deformation of a solid resulting from stress; expressed
mathematically as the ratio of a change in an object's length to its initial unstressed
reference length.
stress - a force acting on a solid's unit area.
tensile strain - strain that increases the length of a solid (also called positive strain).
compressive strain - strain that reduces the length of a solid (also called negative
strain).

load cell - a device with one or more strain gauges mounted to a solid for the purpose
of measuring strain in one or more directions
Strain gauges may be purchased as complete units, with both strain gauge elements
and bridge resistors in one housing, sealed and encapsulated for protection from the
elements, and equipped with mechanical fastening points for attachment to a
machine or structure. Such a package is typically called a load cell.

The schematic symbol for the strain gauge is similar to that of a variable resistor. The
symbol ε
(the lower-case Greek letter epsilon) indicates that the resistance is a function of
strain.
 ε
7. Potentiometer – types: linear, rotary

wiper, slider or tap

8. Encoder- non-contact optical devices used for converting the angular position of a
rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data code. All optical encoders work on the
same basic principle. Light from an LED or Infrared light source is passed through a
rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns, either
binary, grey code or BCD

Tachometer - The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has one

single square wave output and is often used in unidirectional applications where
basic position or speed information only is required.
9. Bourdon tubes – consist of a formed tube with one end fixed and the other end free
to deflect under pressure.

Bourdon tube gauge contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure input
on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other end, as
shown schematically below.

10. Diaphragm - mechanical transducers capable of transforming pressure into a

mechanical movement proportional to the applied pressure

11. Bellows - These are the elastic elements that convert the air pressure into
displacement, and it is commonly used for the measurement of pressure.It is made of
a sealed chamber that has multiple ridges like the pleats of an accordion that are
compressed slightly when the sensor is manufactured. When pressure is applied to
the chamber, the chamber will try to expand and open the pleats.
 Movement rotates a pointer or actuates a controller or transmitter by mechanical linkage

CHEMICAL SENSORS
1. Gas sensor (CO, CH4) - is a device which detects the presence of
various gases within an area, usually as part of a system to warn about gases
which might be harmful to humans or animals.

MAGNETIC FIELD SENSORS

1. Flux-gate compasses – electronic compass that measures the relative strength of the
earth’s magnetic passing through the coils of wires
2. Hall-effect sensor - When a current-carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field,
a voltage will be generated perpendicular to both the current and the field. This
principle is known as the Hall effect.

3. Magneto resistor - ↑magnetic field = ↑ Resistance

LIGHT TRANSDUCERS
Photo-electric or photo sensors - detect visible or infrared energy and convert into electrical
signal
1. Photo conductive cell/photo resistor/LDR(light dependent resistor) - ↑Light intensity
= ↓ Resistance

2. Photo voltaic/ solar cell - ↑Light intensity = ↑voltage

 3. Photodiode – a photo-junction device, ↑Light intensity = ↑current

If any semiconductor diode is reverse biased and the junction illuminated, the
reverse current flow will vary in proportion to the amount of light. This effect is
utilized in the photodiode, which has a clear window through which light can fall on
one side of the crystal and across the junction of the p and n zones.

In effect, such a diode will work in a circuit as a variable resistance, the amount of
resistance offered by the diode being dependent on the amount of light falling on the
diode. In the dark the photodiode will have normal reverse working characteristics;
that is, it will provide almost infinitely high resistance with no current flow. At
increasing levels of illumination, resistance will become proportionately reduced, thus
allowing increasing current to flow through the diode.

4. Photo transistor – also a photo-junction device

5. Optoisolators/ optocouplers - A phototransistor and a light-emitting diode (LED) may

be combined in a single envelope, such a device being known as an optoisolator.

6. LED – output transducer

7. LAMPS – output transducer

Scanning techniques
 a. Through-beam/direct scan - In through (direct) scan the light source and
photoreceiver are positioned opposite each other, so light from the source
shines directly at the sensor. The object to be detected passes between the
two.
b. Retro-reflective scan - light source and photosensor occupy a common
housing. The light beam is directed at a reflector which returns the light along
the same path it was sent.
c. Diffuse scan – the same with retro-reflective scan, only that the target object
serves as the reflector.

SOUND TRANSDCUCERS

infrasonic - a sound frequency below the audible range (less than about 20 Hz).
ultrasonic - a sound frequency above the audible range (greater than 20 kHz).

1. Microphone

2. Loudspeaker/ Headphone

3. Bell